# content_venous

system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Jugular veins
memorix_page: 296
latin: venae jugulares
en: Jugular veins
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The only valve in the internal jugular vein</b> is located near the inferior bulb.<br>
  <b>The anatomy of the veins of the neck varies among different individuals.</b> This is especially true where veins drain into other veins. The facial, retromandibular, occipital, vertebral and external jugular veins all show considerable variation in their anatomy.<br>

clinical_notes:
  Central venous pressure can be evaluated by examination of the jugular vein filling pressure. In a patient sitting at 30° the jugular veins shouldn't fill more than 2 cm above the sternoclavicular joint. Distension of the jugular vein beyond this level can occur in right ventricular insufficiency, tricuspidal valve disease and superior vena cava syndrome. In patients with right ventricular failure, applying sustained pressure for 10 s on the right hypochondrium causes the jugular venous pressure to increase significantly (> 4cm). 

  Central venous catheterisation is the insertion of a catheter into the internal jugular or subclavian vein. It is used for long-term intravenous administration of medication, fl uids or nutrition, and for the measurement of central venous pressure (normal value 1-10 mmHg). Potential complications are: pneumothorax caused by puncturing the cervical pleura and injury to the brachial plexus and subclavian artery.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 0
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: Internal jugular vein and its branches
memorix_page: 295
object_id: vena jugularis interna
latin: vena jugularis interna
en: Internal jugular vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The internal jugular vein </b>is formed from the confluence of two intracranial sinuses: the sigmoid sinus and the inferior petrosal sinus. Its dilated initial segment, located in the jugular foramen, is called<b> the superior bulb.</b> It runs<b> caudally through the parapharyngeal space with the internal carotid artery and vagus nerve</b>. It widens behind the sternoclavicular joint as the inferior bulb, before joining the <b>subclavian vein to form the brachiocephalic vein. </b>It has both intracranial and extracranial tributaries and collects blood from the head (including the eye and brain) and the ventral part of the neck. The internal jugular vein and its tributaries usually don’t have valves.

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: Extracranial tributaries of internal jugular vein
memorix_page: 295
object_id: vena retromandibularis
latin: vena retromandibularis
en: Retromandibular vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em> is usually formed by the confluence of the superficial temporal vein, maxillary veins, middle temporal vein, and transverse facial vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em> descends in the retromandibular fossa within the parenchyma of the parotid gland</indent>
  - <indent=3em> bifurcates into anterior and posterior branches</indent>
  - <indent=3em> the anterior branch usually joins the facial vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em> the posterior branch joins the posterior auricular vein to form the external jugular vein</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.4
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: Extracranial tributaries of internal jugular vein
memorix_page: 295
object_id: venae maxillares
latin: venae maxillares
en: Maxillary veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em> very short veins connecting the pterygoid plexus to the initial part of the retromandibular vein

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.5
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: Extracranial tributaries of internal jugular vein
memorix_page: 295
object_id: vena facialis
latin: vena facialis
en: Facial vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em> drains the facial part of the head</indent>
  - <indent=3em> courses from the medial angle of the eye on the face, ventrally to the masseter, over the mandible into the submandibular region, where it lies uperficially to the submandibular gland</indent>
  - <indent=3em> is usually joined by the anterior branch of the retromandibular vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em> alternatively, it may terminate alone in the retromandibular or external jugular vein</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.5.2
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: vena facialis
memorix_page: 295
object_id: vena angularis
latin: vena angularis
en: Angular vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em> the beginning of the facial vein near the medial angle of the eye, anastomoses with the veins of the orbit

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.5.5
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: vena facialis
memorix_page: 295
object_id: vena profunda faciei
latin: vena profunda faciei
en: Deep facial vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em> connects the pterygoid plexus to the facial vein, passing between the masseter and buccinator

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: venae pharyngeae
object_id: plexus pharyngeus
latin: plexus pharyngeus
en: Pharyngeal plexus
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The pharyngeal plexus</b> (plexus pharyngeus) is a venous network on the outer surface of the pharynx. It is connected to the pterygoid venous plexus, the suboccipital venous plexus and the anterior external vertebral venous plexus.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.8.1
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: Internal jugular vein and its branches
parent: Thyroid veins
memorix_page: 295
object_id: venae thyroidea superior
latin: venae thyroidea superior
en: Superior thyroid veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em> drain the cranial parts of the thyroid gland and larynx and contribute to one of two common venous trunks (thyrolingual or thyrolinguofacial trunk)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: External jugular vein and its branches
parent: External jugular vein and its branches
object_id: vena jugularis externa
latin: vena jugularis externa
en: External jugular vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The external jugular vein is a superficial vein of the neck that usually arises from the confluence of the posterior auricular vein and the posterior branch of the retromandibular vein. </b>It descends <b>on the lateral side of the neck, crosses the sternocleidomastoid </b> and opens into<b> the venous angle</b> or in its vicinity. It usually has a valve at its termination. It drains the regions of the auricle and neck.

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: External jugular vein and its branches
parent: External jugular vein and its branches
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena retromandibularis
latin: vena retromandibularis*2
en: Retromandibular vein*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs within the parotid gland parenchyma</indent>
  - <indent=3em>one of the few veins that bifurcates</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the anterior branch usually opens into the facial vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the posterior branch joins the posterior auricular vein to form the external jugular vein</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.3
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: External jugular vein and its branches
parent: External jugular vein and its branches
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena occipitalis
latin: vena occipitalis
en: Occipital vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>usually opens into the vertebral vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>frequently has a connection with the external jugular vein</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.5
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: External jugular vein and its branches
parent: External jugular vein and its branches
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena jugularis anterior
latin: vena jugularis anterior
en: Anterior jugular vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>drains the anterior cervical region, descends close to the midline</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the jugular venous arch (arcus venosus jugularis) is a short connection with the contralateral vein</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1115 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.6
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: External jugular vein and its branches
parent: External jugular vein and its branches
en_description: - <indent=3em>drain the lateral cervical region
memorix_page: 296
object_id: venae transversae colli
latin: venae transversae colli
en: Transverse cervical veins
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,ulna,radius,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.7
main_group: Jugular veins
sub_group: External jugular vein and its branches
parent: External jugular vein and its branches
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena suprascapularis
latin: vena suprascapularis
en: Suprascapular vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>drains the area supplied by the suprascapular artery, doubled in its peripheral course

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,ulna,radius,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Subclavian vein
parent: vena subclavia et vena axillaris
memorix_page: 296
latin: vena subclavia
en: Subclavian vein
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The subclavian vein <b>courses ventrally to the anterior scalene muscle </b>and the scalene fissure, and dorsally to the sternoclavicular joint.<b> It opens into the venous angle,</b> where it joins the internal jugular vein to <b>form the brachiocephalic vein.</b>The subclavian vein has only minor tributaries as most of the veins following branches of the subclavian artery open into either the brachiocephalic vein or the internal jugular vein. Both veins have at least one valve.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Subclavian vein
parent: vena subclavia
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena subclavia 1,vena subclavia 2
en: Subclavian vein master branch
cell_type: 0
tags: subgroup_desc
related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1.1
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Subclavian vein
parent: Subclavian vein master branch
en_description: - <indent=3em>drains the area supplied by the dorsal scapular artery
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena scapularis dorsalis
latin: vena scapularis dorsalis
en: Dorsal scapular vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,venae transversae colli


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Axillary vein
parent: vena subclavia et vena axillaris
memorix_page: 296
latin: vena axillaris
en: Axillary vein
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  <b>The axillary vein is the continuation of the brachial veins in the axilla. </b>It becomes <b>the subclavian vein at the outer border the 1st rib. </b>


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Axillary vein
parent: vena axillaris
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena axillaris
en: Axillary vein master branch
cell_type: 0
tags: subgroup_desc
related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,vena subclavia 1


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.1
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Axillary vein
parent: Axillary vein master branch
memorix_page: 296
object_id: venae thoracoepigastricae
latin: venae thoracoepigastricae
en: Thoraco-epigastric veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>drain the subcutaneous tissue of the anterior and lateral aspects of the thoracic wall</indent>
  - <indent=3em>anastomose with the subcutaneous abdominal veins</indent>

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,vena axillaris,vena thoracica lateralis


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.2
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Axillary vein
parent: Axillary vein master branch
en_description: - <indent=3em>drains the lateral aspect of the thoracic wall
memorix_page: 296
object_id: vena thoracica lateralis
latin: vena thoracica lateralis
en: Lateral thoracic vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,vena axillaris


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.5
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Axillary vein
parent: Axillary vein master branch
memorix_page: 296
latin: vena cephalica
en: Cephalic vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>a superficial vein of the upper limb arising from the dorsal venous plexus of the hand</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes through the infraclavicular (oval) fossa in the clavipectoral fascia</indent>

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,vena axillaris,ulna,radius


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.6.1
main_group: Subclavian and axillary veins
sub_group: Axillary vein
parent: vena subscapularis
object_id: vena thoracodorsalis
latin: vena thoracodorsalis
en: Thoracodorsal vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,vena axillaris,vena subscapularis


system: venous
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Vena cava divisions
parent: Vena cava divisions
object_id: vena cava superior
latin: vena cava superior
en: Superior vena cava
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The superior vena cava</b> is a <b>short vein of a large diameter (2- 3 cm) without valves</b>, arising from the confluence of the right and left brachiocephalic veins at the level of the cartilage of the first right rib. <b>It descends vertically through the superior mediastinum</b> to <b>empty into the right atrium at the level of the third sternocostal joint.</b> It carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body (head, neck, upper limbs, thorax and upper part of the back).

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,


system: venous
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Vena cava divisions
parent: Vena cava divisions
object_id: vena cava inferior
latin: vena cava inferior
en: Inferior vena cava
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The inferior vena cava is the largest vein in the human body. It collects blood from the inferior half of the body</b> (below the diaphragm) and possesses <b>no valves.</b> I<b>t arises from the junction of the right and left common iliac veins</b> at the level of L4 - L5. <b>It is runs on the right of the abdominal aorta, courses dorsally to the liver</b> in the groove for the inferior vena cava and passes <b>through the diaphragm</b> in the caval opening. It has both parietal and visceral tributaries.

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t10,os costale 3,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t1,costae spuriae 10,costae spuriae 9,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 12,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa prima 1,costa secunda 2,os costale 4,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: Vena cava
en: Superior vena cava branches
cell_type: 0
clinical_notes:
  <strong>Superior vena cava syndrome</strong> is caused by a local expanding mass compressing the superior vena cava, causing swelling of the head and upper limbs.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: Superior vena cava branches
object_id: vena brachiocephalica dextra
latin: vena brachiocephalica dextra
en: Right brachiocephalic vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises from the confluence of the right internal jugular vein with the right subclavian vein, descends behind the right margin of the manubrium of the sternum

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena brachiocephalica dextra
latin: angulus venosus dexter
en: Right venous angle
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>the angle formed by the confluence of the right internal jugular vein with the right subclavian vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the right lymphatic duct opens into the bloodstream here</indent>


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.3
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena brachiocephalica dextra
object_id: vena preicardiophrenica 2
latin: vena preicardiophrenica*2
en: Pericardiacophrenic vein*2
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t1,


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.5
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena brachiocephalica dextra
object_id: venae thymicae
latin: venae thymicae
en: Thymic vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5, clavicula, manubrium sterni


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.9
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena brachiocephalica dextra
object_id: vena thoracica interna 2
latin: vena thoracica interna dextra
en: Right internal thoracic vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>usually doubled, accompanies the internal thoracic artery</indent>
  - <indent=3em>tributaries: superior epigastric vein, musculophrenic vein, and anterior intercostal veins</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 428 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: Superior vena cava branches
object_id: vena brachiocephalica sinistra
latin: vena brachiocephalica sinistra
en: Left brachiocephalic vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises from the confluence of the left internal jugular vein with the left subclavian vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>is located anterior to the three arterial branches of the aortic arch</indent>
  - <indent=3em>lies dorsally to the thymus in childhood</indent>

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.1
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena brachiocephalica sinistra
latin: angulus venosus sinister
en: Left venous angle
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>the angle formed the confluence of the left internal jugular vein with the left subclavian vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the thoracic duct opens into the bloodstream here</indent>


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.2
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena brachiocephalica sinistra
object_id: vena thyroidea inferior 1
latin: plexus thyroideus impar
en: Unpaired thyroid plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>or the separate inferior thyroid vein (v. thyroidea inferior)</indent>
  - <indent=3em>drains the inferior part of the thyroid gland</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 165 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: Superior vena cava branches
object_id: vena azygos
latin: vena azygos
en: Azygos vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises on the right side of the lumbar part of the vertebral column from the confluence of the right subcostal vein with the right ascending lumbar vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes through the right crus of the diaphragm into the posterior inferior mediastinum and ascends behind the hilum of the right lung, then turns ventrally to drain into the superior vena cava</indent>

general_description:
  <b>Azygos</b> means unpaired in Greek. <br>
  <b>The azygos and hemiazygos veins have no valves.</b> They therefore may function as portacaval and cavocaval anastomoses.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.1
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena azygos
object_id: venae oesophageales dextrae
latin: venae oesophageales *3
en: Esophageal veins of Azygos vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae lumbales l1,


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.3.1
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: Intercostal veins of azygos vein
object_id: vena intercostalis suprema 2
latin: vena intercostalis suprema *2
en: Supreme intercostal vein *2
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 638 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The supreme intercostal vein</b> (vena intercostalis suprema) drains the posterior part of the first intercostal space and ends in the brachiocephalic vein.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.3.2
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: Intercostal veins of azygos vein
object_id: vena intercostalis superior dextra
latin: vena intercostalis superior dextra *2
en: Right superior intercostal vein *2
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 638 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The right superior intercostal vein</b> (vena intercostalis superior dextra) drains the posterior part of the second and third intercostal spaces on the right and end in the azygos vein.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: Superior vena cava branches
object_id: vena hemiazygos
latin: vena hemiazygos
en: Hemiazygos vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises on the left side of the lumbar part of the vertebral column from the confluence of the left subcostal vein with the left ascending lumbar vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes through the left crus of the diaphragm into the posterior inferior mediastinum,</indent>
  - <indent=3em>diagonally crosses the vertebral column at level of T7-T9 and drains into the azygos vein</indent>

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae lumbales l1,

general_description:
  <b>The azygos and hemiazygos veins have no valves.</b> They therefore may function as portacaval and cavocaval anastomoses.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.4.5
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena hemiazygos
object_id: vena hemiazygos accessoria
latin: vena hemiazygos accessoria
en: Accessory hemiazygos vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>cranially connected to the left superior intercostal vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>caudally drains into the superior part of the hemiazygos vein</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 450 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.4.5.2
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Superior vena cava branches
parent: vena hemiazygos accessoria
object_id: vena intercostalis superior sinistra
latin: vena intercostalis superior sinistra *1
en: Left superior intercostal vein *1
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 638 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The left superior intercostal vein</b> (vena intercostalis superior sinistra) drains the posterior part of the second, third and usually fourth intercostal spaces on the left and ends in the left brachiocephalic vein.


system: venous
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Inferior vena cava branches
parent: venae lumbales
object_id: vena lumbalis ascendens 1,vena lumbalis ascendens 2
latin: vena lumbalis ascendens*2
en: Ascending lumbar vein*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>a vertical connection between the common iliac vein and the azygos/hemiazygos vein, intersecting the lumbar veins

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 377 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.2
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Inferior vena cava branches
parent: Visceral tibutaries
latin: venae renales
en: Renal veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arise from the kidneys following the course of the renal arteries</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the left one runs dorsally to the pancreas and ventrally to the abdominal aorta</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the right one runs dorsally to the descending part of the duodenum and head of the pancreas</indent>


system: venous
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Inferior vena cava branches
parent: venae renales
en_description: - <indent=3em>opens into into the left renal vein
object_id: vena testicularis sinistrae,vena ovarica sinistra f
latin: vena testicularis sinistra/ovarica sinistra
en: Left testicular/ovarian vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 12,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae spuriae 10,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t7,costae spuriae 8,os sacrum,oc coccygis,pelvis


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.3
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Inferior vena cava branches
parent: Visceral tibutaries
latin: vena testicularis
en: Testicular vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>in male, begins as the pampiniform plexus on the dorsal aspect of the testis and epididymis, courses through the inguinal canal, then runs on the anterior aspect of the psoas major and passes ventrally to the external iliac vessels</indent>
  - <indent=3em>doubled in most of its course and possesses valves</indent>


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.4
main_group: Vena cava
sub_group: Inferior vena cava branches
parent: Visceral tibutaries
latin: vena ovarica
en: Ovarian vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>in female, begins in the ovary, courses ventrally to the external iliac vessels on the anterior aspect of the psoas major, doubled in most of its course, possesses valves


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Portal vein
latin: Vena portae
en: Portal vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The portal vein drains blood from the unpaired organs of the abdominal cavity into the liver. It is formed by the confluence of the superior mesenteric vein with the splenic vein. It passes inside the hepatoduodenal ligament</b> (behind the bile duct and the hepatic artery proper) into the porta hepatis where it bifurcates into right and left branches supplying the hepatic lobes. The portal vein possesses no valves.

general_description:
  <b>The gastropancreaticocolic trunk of Henle</b> is a short trunk formed by the confluence of the right gastro-omental vein, right superior colic vein and anterior pancreaticoduodenal vein. It is situated behind the head of the pancreas.<br>
  <b>Portal hypertension</b> may cause the adventitial veins of the oesophagus to dilate, leading to the formation of paraoesophageal varices.<br>
  <b>Interconnections between the vertebral venous plexuses</b> and other extravertebral veins as known as the plexus of Batson. These interconnections do not possess valves and may serve as a route for the spread of metastasis or inflammation.<br>
  <b>Cavocaval anastomoses</b> may dilated to allow collateral circulation.

clinical_notes:
  <strong>Portal hypertension</strong> is a condition of increased pressure in the portal system. It is caused by obstruction to the portal venous blood flow, which may occur in the circulation before the liver (prehepatic portal hypertension &ndash; within the portal vein and its tributaries), inside the liver parenchyma (intrahepatic portal hypertension) or after the liver (posthepatic portal hypertension &ndash; between the liver and right heart). One of the most common causes of intrahepatic portal hypertension is liver cirrhosis. Increased pressure inside the liver leads to the redistribution of portal blood into the systemic circulation, circumventing the liver. This is achieved through portacaval anastomoses, connections between the portal and the caval systems.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Portal vein
sub_group: Portal vein branches
parent: Portal vein branches
object_id: vena mesenterica superior
latin: vena mesenterica superior
en: Superior mesenteric vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>passes on the right side of the superior mesenteric artery, behind the pancreas within the pancreatic notch, and joins the splenic vein to form the portal vein

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 377 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Portal vein
sub_group: Portal vein branches
parent: Portal vein branches
object_id: vena splenica
latin: vena splenica
en: Splenic vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>collects blood from the spleen, the fundus of the stomach and part of the pancreas</indent>
  - <indent=3em>originates in the splenic hilum, passes above the tail of the pancreas and then behind the body of the pancreas to join the superior mesenteric vein forming the portal vein</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 377 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Portal vein
sub_group: Portal vein branches
parent: vena splenica
object_id: vena mesenterica inferior
latin: vena mesenterica inferior
en: Inferior mesenteric vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>its caudal part accompanies the inferior mesenteric artery, its cranial part accompanies the left colic vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>usually opens into the splenic vein behind the head of the pancreas</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 377 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The inferior mesenteric vein</b> empties into the splenic vein in 50 % of cases, into the superior mesenteric vein in 40 % of cases and directly into the beginning of the portal vein in 10 % of cases.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Portal vein
sub_group: Portal vein branches
parent: Portal vein branches
object_id: vena gastrica sinistra
latin: vena gastrica sinistra
en: Left gastric vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>collects blood from the left part of the lesser curvature</indent>
  - <indent=3em>anastomoses with the right gastric vein to form a venous arch along the lesser curvature</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 377 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Portal vein
sub_group: Portal vein branches
parent: Portal vein branches
object_id: vena gastrica dextra
latin: vena gastrica dextra
en: Right gastric vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>collects blood from the right part of the lesser curvature of the stomach, anastomoses with the left gastric vein to form a venous arch along the lesser curvature

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 377 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Veins of the upper limb
latin: Venae membri superioris
en: Veins of the upper limb
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  The cubital perforating vein of Gracz (vena cubitalis perforans) is a connection between the superficial and deep venous systems in the cubital fossa.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Veins of the upper limb
sub_group: Superficial system of upper limb
parent: Venae membri superioris
en: Superficial system of upper limb
cell_type: 1
general_description:
  The median antebrachial vein (vena mediana antebrachii) courses on the anterior aspect of the forearm and opens into the median cubital vein.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Veins of the upper limb
sub_group: Superficial system of upper limb
parent: Superficial system of upper limb
object_id: venae intercapitulares
latin: venae intercapitulares
en: Intercapitular veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>connections draining venous blood from the palm to the dorsal venous network of the hand

related_objects:
  phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,ulna,radius,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.1
main_group: Veins of the upper limb
sub_group: Superficial system of upper limb
parent: venous manus superficiales
en_description: - <indent=3em>a venous plexus on the dorsum of the hand
object_id: rete venosum dorsale manus
latin: rete venosum dorsale manus
en: Dorsal venous network of hand
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,ulna,radius,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4

general_description:
  Venous blood flows from the palm to the dorsum of the hand due to higher pressure on the palm. This explains the location of the venous network on the dorsum of the hand.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Veins of the upper limb
sub_group: Superficial system of upper limb
parent: Superficial system of upper limb
object_id: vena basilica
latin: vena basilica
en: Basilic vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises at the dorsal venous network of the hand </indent>
  - <indent=3em>courses on the medial side of the forearm, runs in the medial bicipital groove in the arm and pierces the brachial fascia at the hiatus basilicus to join the brachial veins</indent>
  - <indent=3em>alternatively, may ascend deep to the fascia all the way up to the axilla</indent>

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,ulna,radius,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Veins of the upper limb
sub_group: Superficial system of upper limb
parent: Superficial system of upper limb
object_id: vena cephalica
latin: vena cephalica*2
en: Cephalic vein*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises at the dorsal venous network of the hand on the lateral side of the forearm, runs in the lateral bicipital groove in the arm and then in the deltopectoral groove (sulcus deltopectoralis) at the shoulder</indent>
  - <indent=3em>pierces the clavipectoral fascia in the clavipectoral triangle (in the infraclavicular fossa) to join the axillary vein</indent>

related_objects:
  clavicula,costae spuriae 9,costae spuriae 8,os costale 5,os costale 6,os costale 7,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,humerus,scapula,os costale 4,vena axillaris,ulna,radius


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.3
main_group: Veins of the upper limb
sub_group: Deep system of upper limb
parent: Deep system of upper limb
en_description: - <indent=3em>thin veins draining the area supplied by the ulnar artery
object_id: venae ulnares
latin: venae ulnares
en: Ulnar veins
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,ulna,radius,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4,radius,ulna


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Veins of the heart
latin: Venae cordis
en: Veins of the heart
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>Venous blood is drained from the heart wall in three paths. The main venous drainage is via the coronary sinus, which opens into the right atrium</b>. <b>The anterior veins of the right ventricle </b>drain blood from the right ventricular wall directly into the right atrium. <b>The Thebesian veins </b>direct blood individually into all four chambers of the heart.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Veins of the heart
sub_group: Coronary Vessels
parent: Coronary Vessels
memorix_page: 276
object_id: sinus coronarius
latin: sinus coronarius
en: Coronary sinus
cell_type: 0
master_object: sinus coronarius
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>is located in the coronary sulcus on the inferior wall of the heart</indent>
  - <indent=3em>collects blood from its tributaries and directs it to the right atrium</indent>

related_objects:
  ventriculus dexter,ventriculus sinister,atrium sinistrum,atrium dextrum,,paries posterolateralis ventriculi sinistri,paries posterolateralis atrii sinistri,paries anterolateralis ventriculi dextri,paries lateralis atrii dextri


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Veins of the heart
sub_group: Coronary Vessels
parent: sinus coronarius
memorix_page: 276
object_id: vena cardiaca cordis magna
latin: vena cardiaca/cordis magna
en: Great cardiac vein
cell_type: 0
master_object: sinus coronarius
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>begins in the anterior interventricular sulcus and collects blood from the area supplied by the left coronary artery

related_objects:
  ventriculus dexter,ventriculus sinister,atrium sinistrum,atrium dextrum,,paries posterolateralis ventriculi sinistri,paries posterolateralis atrii sinistri,paries anterolateralis ventriculi dextri,paries lateralis atrii dextri


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Veins of the heart
sub_group: Coronary Vessels
parent: sinus coronarius
memorix_page: 276
object_id: vena cardiaca cordis media
latin: vena cardiaca/cordis media
en: Middle cardiac vein
cell_type: 0
master_object: sinus coronarius
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>courses through the posterior interventricular sulcus and drains blood from the area supplied by the posterior interventricular branch

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 226 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Pulmonary veins
sub_group: Pulmonary veins of the left side
parent: Pulmonary veins of the left side
object_id: vena pulmonaris sinistra superior
latin: vena pulmonaris sinistra superior
en: Left superior pulmonary vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  bronchus segmentalis basalis medialis or cardiacus 1,bronchus lingularis superior,bronchus segmentalis basalis lateralis 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis posterior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis posterior 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis medialis or cardiacus 2,bronchus lobaris inferior dexter,bronchus lingularis inferior,bronchus lingularis,bronchus segmentalis superior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis anterior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis lateralis 1,bronchus segmentalis superior 2,bronchus lobaris inferior sinister,bronchus segmentalis lateralis,bronchus segmentalis medialis,bronchus lobaris medius,bronchus principalis dexter,bronchus segmentalis posterior,bronchus lobaris superior dexter,bronchus divisio superior,bronchus lobaris superior sinister,bronchus segmentalis anterior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis anterior 2,bronchus principalis sinister,bronchus segmentalis anterior 2,bronchus segmentalis apicalis,bronchus segmentalis apicoposterior,carina tracheae,paries membranaceus,ligamenta anularia,ligamentum cricotracheale,cartilagines tracheales,truncus pulmonaris,conus arterious,valvula semilunaris dextra,valvula semilunaris anterior,valvula semilunaris sinistra,tunica mucosa trachealia,atrium sinistrum


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Iliac veins
en: Iliac veins
cell_type: 0
clinical_notes:
  <b>Fractures and other trauma in the pelvic region</b> are associated with severe bleeding (both arterial bleeding and profuse venous bleeding from the venous plexuses). <br>
  <b>Slow blood flow in the pelvic venous plexus</b> is associated with formation of blood clots (thrombosis), which carry a risk of embolisation to the lungs.


system: venous
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: Common iliac vein branch
object_id: vena iliaca communis 1,vena iliaca communis 2
latin: vena iliaca communis
en: Common iliac vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The common iliac vein originates at the confluence of the internal and external iliac veins ventrally to the sacroiliac joint. The common iliac veins join to form the inferior vena cava</b> at the level of the vertebra L4. These veins usually do not possess valves.

related_objects:
  vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,pelvis,os coccygis,vertebrae lumbales l1,os sacrum


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: Common iliac vein branch
object_id: vena iliaca interna
latin: vena iliaca interna
en: Internal iliac vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The internal iliac vein is<b> formed by the confluence of the inferior gluteal veins with the internal pudendal veins.</b> It has both parietal and visceral tributaries. The parietal tributaries collect blood from regions supplied by homonymous arteries; usually two parietal veins accompany each of the arteries outside the lesser pelvis.

  - <indent=3em>collects blood from the lesser pelvis

related_objects:
  vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,pelvis,os coccygis,vertebrae lumbales l1,os sacrum

clinical_notes:
  <b>The internal iliac vein and its tributaries</b> are associated with profuse venous bleeding if harmed. The pelvic veins must be spared very carefully during surgical procedures because it is very difficult to suture the walls of the veins or to ligate bleeding veins in this region.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.2
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: Visceral tributaries
object_id: plexus venosus prostaticus
latin: plexus venosus prostaticus
en: Prostatic venous plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>is located behind the symphysis</indent>
  - <indent=3em>surrounds the prostate and</indent>
  - <indent=3em>is connected to the vesical venous plexus</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 149 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.4
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: Visceral tributaries
object_id: plexus venosus vaginalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 2
latin: plexus venosus vaginalis
en: Vaginal venous plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>surrounds the vagina</indent>
  - <indent=3em>is connected to the vesical venous plexus</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 149 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.5
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: Visceral tributaries
object_id: plexus venosus uterinus f
latin: plexus venosus uterinus
en: Uterine venous plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>is located close to the uterine margins within the broad ligament of the uterus and is connected to the vaginal venous plexus, ovarian veins and via the veins of the round ligament of the uterus to the external pudendal veins

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 149 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.7
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: Visceral tributaries
en_description: - <indent=3em>helps to retain stool
latin: plexus venosus rectalis internus / plexus haemorrhoidalis
en: Internal rectal venous plexus / haemorrhoidal plexus
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The internal rectal venous plexus</b> (haemorrhoidal plexus) is situatedin the submucosa of the analcanal. It's distention contributes to stool continence. Its dilation in portal hypertension causes internalhaemorrhoids.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: Common iliac vein branch
object_id: vena iliaca externa
latin: vena iliaca externa
en: External iliac vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The external iliac vein</b> is <b>the continuation of the common femoral vein</b>. It originates below the medial part of the inguinal ligament within the vascular space. It passes along the psoas major, medially to the external iliac artery and enters the <b>lesser pelvis to join the internal iliac vein to form the common iliac vein.</b><br>
  - <indent=3em>collects blood from the lower extremities and part of the anterior abdominal wall</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 149 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Iliac veins
sub_group: Common iliac vein branch
parent: vena iliaca externa
object_id: vena circumflexa ilium profunda
latin: vena circumflexa ilium profunda
en: Deep circumflex iliac vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>collects blood from the iliac region and the adjacent abdominal wall</indent>
  - <indent=3em>its peripheral part is doubled</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
latin: Venae membri inferioris
en: Veins of the lower limb
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The veins of the lower extremity</b> are divided into <b>2 systems</b>. <b>The superficial system</b> consists of the veins in the subcutaneous tissue, which do not accompany arteries. <b>The deep system</b> consists of the veins accompanying the arteries; two veins usually accompanying each artery. <b>Perforators</b> (perforating veins, venae perforantes) <b>interconnect the two systems.</b>

general_description:
  <b>The so-called third system of the lower limb venous circulation</b> is formed by a small subcutaneous system (systema venosum laterale of Albanese). It is situated on the lateral side of the knee region and is interconnected via perforators with the deep venous system.<br>
  <b>The venous corona mortis</b> (crown of death) is a variable interconnection between the inferior epigastric vein and obturator vein in the vicinity of the linea terminalis seen in 75 % of people.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The venous systems of the lower limbs</b> are connected to the pelvic plexuses by the perineal veins and the veins in the inguinal canal, obturator canal and infrapiriform foramen. The direction of blood flow depends on pressure gradients (twoway circulation), and great varices may develop inside the lesser pelvis.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Superficial system of lower limb
parent: Superficial system of lower limb
en_description: - <indent=3em>a venous arch on the dorsum of the foot
object_id: arcus venosus dorsalis pedis
latin: arcus venosus dorsalis pedis
en: Dorsal venous arch of foot
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os talus,os calcis,os naviculare,os cuneiforme mediale,os metatarsale 3,os metatarsale 4,os cuneiforme laterale,os cuneiforme intermedium,os cuboideum,phalanx proximalis pedis 5,phalanx proximalis pedis 4,phalanx proximalis pedis 3,phalanx proximalis pedis 2,phalanx proximalis hallucis 1,phalanx media pedis 5,phalanx media pedis 4,phalanx media pedis 3,phalanx media pedis 2,phalanx distalis pedis 5,phalanx distalis pedis 4,phalanx distalis pedis 3,phalanx distalis pedis 2,phalanx distalis hallucis 1,os metatarsale hallucis 1,os metatarsale 5,os metatarsale 2


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.1
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Superficial system of lower limb
parent: arcus venosus dorsalis pedis
object_id: vena marginalis medialis
latin: vena marginalis medialis
en: Medial marginal vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises from the dorsal venous arch and passes along the medial margin of the dorsum of the foot and then continues as the great saphenous vein

related_objects:
  os talus,os calcis,os naviculare,os cuneiforme mediale,os metatarsale 3,os metatarsale 4,os cuneiforme laterale,os cuneiforme intermedium,os cuboideum,phalanx proximalis pedis 5,phalanx proximalis pedis 4,phalanx proximalis pedis 3,phalanx proximalis pedis 2,phalanx proximalis hallucis 1,phalanx media pedis 5,phalanx media pedis 4,phalanx media pedis 3,phalanx media pedis 2,phalanx distalis pedis 5,phalanx distalis pedis 4,phalanx distalis pedis 3,phalanx distalis pedis 2,phalanx distalis hallucis 1,os metatarsale hallucis 1,os metatarsale 5,os metatarsale 2


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.2
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Superficial system of lower limb
parent: arcus venosus dorsalis pedis
object_id: vena marginalis lateralis
latin: vena marginalis lateralis
en: Lateral marginal vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises from the dorsal venous arch and passes along the lateral margin of the dorsum of the foot and then continues as the small saphenous vein

related_objects:
  os talus,os calcis,os naviculare,os cuneiforme mediale,os metatarsale 3,os metatarsale 4,os cuneiforme laterale,os cuneiforme intermedium,os cuboideum,phalanx proximalis pedis 5,phalanx proximalis pedis 4,phalanx proximalis pedis 3,phalanx proximalis pedis 2,phalanx proximalis hallucis 1,phalanx media pedis 5,phalanx media pedis 4,phalanx media pedis 3,phalanx media pedis 2,phalanx distalis pedis 5,phalanx distalis pedis 4,phalanx distalis pedis 3,phalanx distalis pedis 2,phalanx distalis hallucis 1,os metatarsale hallucis 1,os metatarsale 5,os metatarsale 2


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Superficial system of lower limb
parent: Superficial system of lower limb
object_id: vena saphena parva
latin: vena saphena parva
en: Small saphenous vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>a continuation of the lateral marginal vein </indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes on the lateral surface of the foot, behind the lateral malleolus, and on the posterior surface of the calf with the sural nerve</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes between the two heads of the gastrocnemius and penetrates the crural fascia to drain into the popliteal vein within the popliteal fossa</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.4.2
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Superficial system of lower limb
parent: vena saphena parva
object_id: venae perforantes cruris
latin: venae perforantes cruris
en: Perforator veins of leg
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The term perforator</b> is in clinic used for both venous and arterial perforators.A venous perforator interconnects the superficial (subcutaneous)and deep venous system. An Arterial perforator is an artery which penetrates through a muscle and fascia into subcutaneous tissue.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Superficial system of lower limb
parent: Superficial system of lower limb
object_id: vena saphena manga
latin: vena saphena magna
en: Great saphenous vein
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum,corpus fibula, tibia
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>a continuation of the medial marginal vein </indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes on the medial side of the foot, in front of the medial malleolus, then continues on the medial side of the calf accompanying the saphenous nerve</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes through the saphenous hiatus in the fascia lata and empties into the femoral vein</indent>

general_description:
  <b>The main trunk of the great/small saphenous vein</b> is enclosed between the subcutaneous fascia(fascia saphena) and superficial muscular fascia. This organization resembles "Egyptian eye" on ultrasoundexamination.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.6.1
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Superficial system of lower limb
parent: confluens venosus subinguinalis
object_id: vena circumflexa femoris medialis
latin: vena circumflexa femoris medialis
en: Medial circumflex femoral vein
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,pelvis,os coccygis,vertebrae lumbales l1,os sacrum,os femoris


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.4.1
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Deep system of lower limb
parent: Veins of the thigh
object_id: vena poplitea
latin: vena poplitea
en: Popliteal vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises from the confluence of the anterior and posterior tibial veins</indent>
  - <indent=3em>is located in the popliteal fossa and passes through the adductor hiatus to the adductor canal</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.4.2
main_group: Veins of the lower limb
sub_group: Deep system of lower limb
parent: Veins of the thigh
object_id: vena femoralis
latin: vena femoralis
en: Femoral vein
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>courses medially to the femoral artery and empties into the common femoral vein at the femoral triangle


system: venous
main_group: Veins of the brain
latin: venae cerebri
en: Veins of the brain
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The veins of the brain are not equipped with valves and pass in the subarachnoid space</b>, with some of them passing under ependyma. They are classified into two groups, the <b>supratentorial</b> (superficial and deep) and <b>infratentorial group</b>. <b>The superficial cerebral veins collect blood from the cerebral cortex and drain into the venous sinuses.</b> <b>The deep cerebral veins drain blood from the diencephalon and deep parts of the hemispheres into the great cerebral vein.</b> The infratentorial veins drain blood from the cerebellum and brainstem into the venous sinuses. Eventually, all the blood is drained <b>into the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein</b>. Blood from the venous sinuses can also<b> flow out by emissary veins into the extracranial veins of the head.</b>

general_description:
  <b>Original venous plexuses</b> are preserved around the spinal cord as the vertebral venous plexuses. In the cranial cavity the plexuses have not disappeared but have transformed into the sinuses of the dura mater.

  <b>The textbook pattern</b> of the confluence of the sinuses arrangement occurs in only 10 % of cases.

   <b>The Willis chords</b> are transverse columns segregating the lumen of the sinuses, especially in the superior sagittal sinus.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Selective catheterization of the inferior petrosal sinus:</b> A catheter is introduced into the internal jugular vein. The inferior petrosal sinus represents the nearest catheterization point for blood sampling from the pituitary gland. The sampling is used for the diagnosis of ACTH-secreting and growth hormone-producing hypophysial adenomas (endocrinology, oncology).


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Deep veins of the brain
parent: venae profundae cerebri
object_id: vena magna cerebri
latin: vena magna cerebri
en: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a large, short, unpaired vein
  - is formed by a union of the right and left internal cerebral vein under the splenium of the corpus callosum
  - the basilar vein empties into the great cerebral vein
  - enters the quadrigeminal cistern (cistern of great cerebral vein) and drains into the straight sinus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Deep veins of the brain
parent: vena magna cerebri
object_id: vena interna cerebri
latin: vena interna cerebri
en: Internal cerebral vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - Internal cerebral vein (v. interna cerebri)
  - a paired vein located above the roof of the third ventricle, in the telondiencephalic fissure
  - collects blood from the basal ganglia, internal capsule, septum, choroid plexus and from parts of the white matter of the hemispheres

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The infratentorial veins</b> are the cerebellar veins accompanying homonymous arteries. They drain into the great cerebral vein in the midline and laterally into the nearest venous sinuses (superior petrosal, transverse, sigmoid sinus).


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.3
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Deep veins of the brain
parent: vena interna cerebri
latin: vena thalamostriata superior
en: Superior thalamostriate vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - drains blood from the thalamus, striatum, and internal capsule (lies under the stria terminalis of the thalamus)


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: venae cerebri
latin: venae superficiales cerebri
en: Superficial veins of the brain
cell_type: 1
general_description:
  <b>The bridging veins</b> are the terminal segments of the superficial cerebral veins. The emissary veins connect the sinuses of the dura mater, diploic veins, and extracranial veins.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: venae superficiales cerebri
object_id: vena cerebri media superficialis
latin: vena cerebri media superficialis
en: Superficial middle cerebral vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a visible vein begins close to the supramarginal gyrus, runs along the lateral cerebral sulcus and drains into the sphenoparietal or cavernous sinus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 619 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: venae superficiales cerebri
object_id: venae cerebri superiores
latin: venae cerebri superiores
en: Superior cerebral veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - collect blood from the superior part of the hemispheric convexity and empty into the superior sagittal sinus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 619 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.1
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: vena cerebri media superficialis
object_id: vena anastomotica superior
latin: vena anastomotica superior
en: Superior anastomotic vein of Trolard
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a connection between the superficial middle cerebral vein and superior cerebral veins (superior sagittal sinus)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 619 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.2
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: vena cerebri media superficialis
object_id: vena anastomotica inferior
latin: vena anastomotica inferior
en: Inferior anastomotic vein of Labbé
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a connection between the superficial middle cerebral vein and inferior cerebral veins (transverse sinus)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 619 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.3
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: venae superficiales cerebri
latin: vena cerebri media profunda
en: Deep middle cerebral vein
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - accompanies the middle cerebral artery at the base of the lateral cerebral fossa
  - drains the insular lobe and empties into the basal vein


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.4
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: venae superficiales cerebri
object_id: vena cereberi inferiores
latin: venae cerebri inferiores
en: Inferior cerebral veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - drain the inferior part of the hemispheric convexity and inferior surface of the hemisphere
  - empty into the transverse, superior petrosal, and inferior petrosal sinus

related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 2.5
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Great cerebral vein of Galenos
parent: venae superficiales cerebri
object_id: vena basalis
latin: vena basalis
en: Basal vein of Rosenthal
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - originates by the confluence of the deep middle cerebral vein, anterior cerebral vein, and small inferior thalamostriate veins at the level of the anterior perforated substance
  - collects blood from the inferior surface of the frontal lobe and adjacent parts of diencephalon
  - encloses the cerebral crura, passes via the ambiens cistern and drains into the great cerebral vein

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: venae cerebri
latin: sinus durae matris
en: Dural venous sinuses
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The <b>dural venous sinuses</b> are enclosed <b>between the two original sheets of the ectomeninx. The walls of the dural venous</b><br /><b>sinuses consist of a layer of endothelium and a sheet of dura mater.</b> The sinuses are not typical veins;<b> they lack</b><br /><b>valves and are not able to collapse when they are damaged.</b> The sinuses have numerous tributaries from the brain, meninges,<br />and cranial bones. They communicate with the extracranial veins through the emissary veins.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Dural venous sinuses thrombosis</b> is one form of stroke. The thrombosis is often complicated by a haemorrhage resulting from blood stasis and oedema. The typical sudden symptoms are headache, weakness, visual impairment, motor and perceptual disorder.


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus durae matris
object_id: confluens sinuum
latin: confluens sinuum
en: Confluence of sinuses
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the confluence is located near the internal occipital protuberance
  - is formed by connection of the superior sagittal, straight, and occipital sinus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.1
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: confluens sinuum
object_id: sinus sagittalis superior
latin: sinus sagittalis superior
en: Superior sagittal sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - passes in the midline within the superior margin of the falx cerebri
  - originates in front of the crista galli and terminates in front of the internal occipital protuberance, where it opens into the confluence of the sinuses
  - arachnoid granulations of Pacchioni are projections which bulge into the sinuses and by which cerebrospinal fluid is absorbed into the venous system

related_objects:
  os occipitalis,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1,lobus parietalis 1,lobus temporalis 1,lobus occipitalis 1,gyrus cinguli 1,lobus frontalis 1


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.2
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: confluens sinuum
object_id: sinus rectus
latin: sinus rectus
en: Straight sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located at the junction of the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli
  - originates as a confluence of the inferior sagittal sinus and great cerebral vein

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus rectus
object_id: sinus sagittalis inferior
latin: sinus sagittalis inferior
en: Inferior sagittal sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - passes within the inferior margin of the falx cerebri
  - opens into the straight sinus in the site of the falx cerebri insertion into the tentorium cerebelli

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 619 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.3
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: confluens sinuum
object_id: sinus occipitalis
latin: sinus occipitalis
en: Occipital sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - originates near the foramen magnum
  - passes upwards in front of the internal occipital crest and opens into the confluence of the sinuses or the terminal segment of the transverse sinus

related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.4
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: confluens sinuum
object_id: sinus marginalis
latin: sinus marginalis
en: Marginal sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a paired sinus passing around the foramen magnum
  - caudally it is connected with the internal vertebral venous plexuses, dorsally with the occipital sinus, and ventraly with the basilar plexus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus durae matris
object_id: sinus transverus 1,sinus transverus 2
latin: sinus transverus
en: Transverse sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a paired sinus located in the groove for the transverse sinus
  - laterally it continues as the sigmoid sinus

related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1,lobus parietalis 1,lobus temporalis 1,lobus occipitalis 1,gyrus cinguli 1,lobus frontalis 1


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.6
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus transverus
object_id: sinus sigmoideus
latin: sinus sigmoideus
en: Sigmoid sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a paired sinus, a continuation of the transverse sinus
  - the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein originates as a confluence of the sigmoid and inferior petrosal sinus at the level of the jugular foramen

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.3
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus durae matris
object_id: plexus basilaris
latin: plexus basilaris
en: Basilar plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a venous sinus located on the clivus of the occipital bone
  - interconnects the cavernous and both inferior petrosal sinuses
  - communicates with the system of the internal vertebral venous sinuses

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.4
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus durae matris
object_id: sinus cavernosus
latin: sinus cavernosus
en: Cavernous sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - passes from the superior orbital fissure to the apex of the petrous bone
  - the internal carotid artery passes within the cavernous sinus together with the oculomotor, trochlear, abducens, ophthalmic, and maxillary nerve
  - the superior ophthalmic vein empties into the sinus
  - the right and left sinus are interconnected by the anterior and posterior intercavernous sinus (sinus intercavernosus anterior et posterior)

related_objects:
  os occipitale,os sphenoidale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.4.2
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus cavernosus
object_id: sinus sphenoparietalis
latin: sinus sphenoparietalis
en: Sphenoparietal sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - medially drains into the cavernous sinus
  - courses along the posterior margin of the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.4.3
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus cavernosus
object_id: sinus petrosus superior
latin: sinus petrosus superior
en: Superior petrosal sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - interconnects the cavernous and sigmoid sinus
  - coursing along the superior margin of the petrous bone

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
custom_hierarchy: 3.4.4
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Dural venous sinuses
parent: sinus cavernosus
object_id: sinus petrosus inferior
latin: sinus petrosus inferior
en: Inferior petrosal sinus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a connection of the cavernous sinus to the jugular foramen
  - gives an origin to the internal jugular vein by a confluence with the sigmoid sinus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 527 characters]


system: venous
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Veins of the spinal cord
parent: venae cerebri
latin: venae spinales
en: Veins of the spinal cord
cell_type: 0
clinical_notes:
  <b>The vertebral venous plexuses</b> (clinically termed as the Batson venous plexus) are not equipped with valves and blood can flow in both directions depending on the pressure gradient. They serve as cavo-caval anastomoses and also provide a possible route for spread of infection and cancer metastases to the vertebral bodies.


system: venous
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Veins of the spinal cord
parent: venae spinales
object_id: plexus venosi vertebrales interni
latin: plexus venosi vertebrales interni
en: Internal vertebral venous plexuses
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the plexuses are located in the epidural space
  - blood is drained to the external vertebral venous plexuses along the roots of the spinal nerves and through the vertebral bodies

related_objects:
  os occipitale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1,medulla spinalis


system: venous
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Veins of the spinal cord
parent: venae spinales
object_id: plexus venosus vertebralis externus anterior
latin: plexus venosi vertebrales externi anterior
en: Anterior external vertebral venous plexuses
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - are located around the vertebral bodies and arches
  - are connected with the veins around the vertbral column

related_objects:
  os occipitale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1,medulla spinalis


system: venous
main_group: Veins of the brain
sub_group: Veins of the spinal cord
parent: venae spinales
latin: venae basivertebrales
en: Basivertebral veins
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - pass through the vertebral bodies, which are richly vascularized
  - connect the internal and external vertebral plexuses

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 544 characters]


# content_nervous

system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
memorix_page: 369
en: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a relatively independent part of the nervous system.</b> It innervates smooth muscle in the internal organs, skin and vessels and regulates the activity of the heart and glands. The effector component of the ANS consists of preganglionic and postganglionic visceromotor fibres. Preganglionic fibres enter autonomic ganglia, where they branch extensively and form synapses with postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic fibres travel to the target organs. <b>The hypothalamus and reticular formation</b> are the highest centres of the ANS. The ANS is functionally divided into <b>the sympathetic part (pars sympathica) and the parasympathetic parts (pars parasympathica).</b> <b>The enteric nervous system is located</b> within the wall of the gastrointestinal tract (myenteric and submucous plexus). It regulates the function of the gastrointestinal tract and is relatively independent from the rest of the ANS.

general_description:
  <b>The anastomosis of Jacobson </b>is formed by the tympanic nerve, tympanic plexus and minor petrosal nerve. It contains autonomous fibres for the otic ganglion.

  <b>The Cannon-Böhm point</b> corresponds to the developmental border between the midgut (innervated by the vagus nerve) and hindgut (innervated by sacral parasympathetic fibres).

  <p><b>The part of the internal carotid plexus</b> within the carotid sinus is sometimes called the cavernous plexus (plexus cavernosus). 

  <b>The subclavian ansa ( ansa subclavia)</b> is a connection between the middle cervical ganglion and cervicothoracic ganglion, which forms a loop around the subclavian artery.

  <b>The splanchnic nerves</b> ( nervi splanchnici) consist mainly of preganglionic fibres, which synapse in either the prevertebral or intramural ganglia. 

  <b>The sacral ansa (ansa sacralis)</b> is the terminal part of both sympathetic trunks. It connects the 4th sacral ganglia with the ganglion impar.

  Difference in nomenclature:<br>
  - nerves (nervi) are formed by sympathetic fibres
  - branches (rami) are formed by parasympathetic fibres

  <b> ANS</b> is an abbreviation for the Autonomic Nervous System. 

  <b>The vegetative nervous system</b> is an obsolete term for the ANS. 

  <b>The sympathetic nervous system</b> is called the thoraco-lumbar part of the ANS and the parasympathetic nervous system the cranio-sacral part of the ANS.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Parasympathetic part
parent: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
latin: pars parasympathica
en: Parasympathetic part
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - purely parasympathetic ganglia are only found in the head
  - ganglia are situated closely to the innervated organs


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Parasympathetic part
parent: nervus facialis*1
object_id: ganglion pterygopalatinum
latin: ganglion pterygopalatinum
en: Pterygopalatine ganglion
related_objects: os sphenoidale,corpus maxillae 1
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located in the pterygopalatine fossa
  - innervates the lacrimal, palatine, nasal and nasopharyngeal glands


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Parasympathetic part
parent: nervus facialis*1
object_id: ganglion submandibulare
latin: ganglion submandibulare*1
en: Submandibular ganglion*1
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located in the submandibular triangle
  - innervates the submandibular, sublingual and lingual glands
  - fibres from the chorda tympani reach the submandibular ganglion via the lingual nerve


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1.4
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Parasympathetic part
parent: Cranial part of parasympathetic part
object_id: nervus glossopharyngeus
latin: nervus glossopharyngeus*1
en: Glossopharyngeal nerve*1
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates the parotid gland
  - preganglionic fibres reach the otic ganglion (ganglion oticum) via the tympanic nerve, tympanic plexus (plexus tympanicus) and lesser petrosal nerve
  - the postganglionic fibres travel to the parotid gland via the auriculotemporal nerve and to the buccal glands via the buccal nerve


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1.5
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Parasympathetic part
parent: Cranial part of parasympathetic part
object_id: nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2
latin: nervus vagus*3
en: Vagus nerve*3
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - forms ganglia within the walls of organs
  - innervates of smooth muscle, glands, internal organs and myocardium

related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Parasympathetic part
parent: Sacral part of parasympathetic part
object_id: nervi splanchnici sacrales 1,nervi splanchnici sacrales 2
latin: nervi splanchnici sacrales*2
en: Sacral splanchnic nerves*2
related_objects: os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - preganglionic fibers
  - parasympathetic fibres into the inferior hypogastric plexus (plexus hypogastricus inferior)
  - preganglionic fibres enter the mixed pelvic plexuses around the organs of the lesser pelvis and synapse with postganglionic fibres in the purely parasympathetic ganglia


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
memorix_page: 370
latin: pars sympathica
en: Sympathetic part
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The sympathetic nervous system</b> consists of both central and peripheral parts. The central part consists of the <b>intermediolateral nuclei</b> in the grey mater of spinal cord segments C8-L3.
  <b>The paried sympathetic trunks</b> make up the peripheral part. They lie lateral to the vertebral bodies and extend all the way from the base of the skull to the coccyx. They penetrate the diaphragm as they pass from the thorax to the abdomen, and then lie in the retroperitoneal space. The sympathetic trunks consist of a series of ganglia, interconnected by interganglionic branches. The sympathetic nervous system <b>increases energy expenditure and catabolism. It increases heart rate and myocardial contractility, dilates bronchi, increases blood pressure and indirectly increases blood glucose and lipid levels.</b>

  - purely sympathetic paravertebral ganglia are located in the sympathetic trunk
  - consists of the paravertebral ganglia interconnected by interganglional branches (rami interganglionares)

general_description:
  <p><b>The part of the internal carotid plexus</b> within the carotid sinus is sometimes called the cavernous plexus (plexus cavernosus). <b>The subclavian ansa ( ansa subclavia)</b> is a connection between the middle cervical ganglion and cervicothoracic ganglion, which forms a loop around the subclavian artery. <b>The splanchnic nerves</b> ( nervi splanchnici) consist mainly of preganglionic fibres, which synapse in either the prevertebral or intramural ganglia. <b>The sacral ansa (ansa sacralis)</b> is the terminal part of both sympathetic trunks. It connects the 4th sacral ganglia with the ganglion impar.</p>

clinical_notes:
  <b>Impairment of the sympathetic internal carotid plexus</b> (plexus caroticus internus) may be caused by dissection of the internal carotid artery (usually traumatic or postoperative separation of the intima from the media) or by damage to the cervicothoracic ganglion (by tumors in the apex of the lungs). The clinical manifestation is called <b>Claude Bernard- Horner syndrome</b>. It presents as ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelid), miosis (constricted pupil), enophthalmos (posterior displacement of the eyeball) and anhidrosis in the face (absence of sweating).


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: pars sympathica
latin: ganglia cervicalia trunci sympathici
en: Cervical ganglia
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - 3 pairs
  - are located lateral to the cervical vertebral column, within the prevertebral layer of the cervical fascia


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.1
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia cervicalia trunci sympathici
object_id: ganglion cervicale superius
latin: ganglion cervicale superius
en: Superior cervical ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located on the surface of the longus capitis at the level of C2-C4
  - its preganglionic fibers originate from spinal segments C8-T1

related_objects:
  os occipitale,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t1,os temporale 1,os temporale 2


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale superius
latin: nervus jugularis
en: Jugular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - travels towards the jugular foramen
  - connects the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve with the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve
  - functionally it is a grey ramus communicans composed of postganglionic fibers

related_objects:
  os occipitale,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t1,os temporale 1,os temporale 2


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale superius
object_id: nervus caroticus internus
latin: nervus caroticus internus
en: Internal carotid nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - forms the internal carotid plexus (plexus caroticus internus) within the adventitia of the carotid artery, travels the cavernous sinus and then splits along the branches of the internal carotid artery

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 204 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: nervus caroticus internus
object_id: nervus petrosus profundus
latin: nervus petrosus profundus
en: Deep petrosal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - carries sympathetic fibers into the pterygopalatine ganglion
  - enters the base of the skull at the sphenopetrosal synchondrosis
  - fuses with the greater petrosal nerve to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal, then travels to the pterygopalatine fossa

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 204 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: nervus caroticus internus
object_id: radix sympathica ganglii ciliaris
latin: radix sympathica ganglii ciliaris
en: Sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - arises from the ophthalmic plexus (plexus ophthalmicus)
  - passes through the ciliary ganglion without synapsing and forms the short ciliary nerves
  - synapse with unmyelinated postganglionic fibers takes place in the superior cervical ganglion

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 204 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale superius
object_id: nervi carotici externi 1,nervi carotici externi 2
latin: nervi carotici externi
en: External carotid nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - approach the external carotid artery, form the external carotid plexus (plexus caroticus externus) within adventitia of the external carotid artery and then continues downward to the common carotid artery

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 204 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale superius
object_id: rami laryngopharyngei ganglii cervicalis superioris
latin: rami laryngopharyngei ganglii cervicalis superioris
en: Laryngopharyngeal branches
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - join the pharyngeal branches from the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves and form the pharyngeal plexus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 204 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale superius
object_id: nervus cardiacus cervicalis superior 1,nervus cardiacus cervicalis superior 2
latin: nervus cardiacus cervicalis superior*2
en: Superior cervical cardiac nerve *2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - on the left, it runs behind the common carotid artery, on the right it, runs behind the brachiocephalic trunk
  - enters the mediastinum and terminates in the cardiac plexus (plexus cardiacus)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 204 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.2
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia cervicalia trunci sympathici
object_id: ganglion cervicale medium 1,ganglion cervicale medium 2
latin: ganglion cervicale medium
en: Middle cervical ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located on the surface of the longus colli at the level of C6
  - in this area, the sympathetic trunk splits into several bundles that surround and form a loop around the subclavian artery
  - the preganglionic fibres are derived from spinal segments C8-T1

related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale medium
latin: rami vasculares ganglii cervicalis medii
en: Vascular branches of middle cervical ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - head towards the common carotid artery,
  - form the common carotid plexus (plexus caroticus communis)


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.3
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia cervicalia trunci sympathici
object_id: ganglion cervicothoracicum 1,ganglion cervicothoracicum 2
latin: ganglion cervicale inferius
en: Inferior cervical ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - in the majority of cases, merges with the 1st thoracic ganglion forming the cervicothoracic/stellate ganglion (ganglion cervicothoracicum/stellatum)
  - is located anterior to the transverse process (processus transversus) of C7 and posterior to the vertebral artery
  - its preganglionic fibers originate from spinal segments C8-T1

related_objects:
  os occipitale,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,os temporale 1,os temporale 2


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale inferius
object_id: ganglion cervicothoracicum 1,ganglion cervicothoracicum 2
latin: ganglion cervicothoracicum, stellatum
en: Cervicothoracic, stellate ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is formed by fusion of the inferior cervical ganglion with first thoracic ganglion (ganglion thoracicum primum) 
  - is present in the majority of cases

related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglion cervicale inferius
memorix_page: 370
object_id: rami communicantes grisei ganglii inferiori
latin: rami communicantes grisei ganglii cervicalis inferioris
en: Grey rami communicantes (inferior ganglion)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - join the intercostal nerves in cervical part
  - emerge from all ganglia of the sympathetic trunk
  - join the spinal nerves and innervate cutaneous glands and smooth muscle in the skin (the erector pili muscles)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.3
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: pars sympathica
memorix_page: 370
object_id: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathetici 1,ganglia thoracica trunci sympathetici 2
latin: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
en: Thoracic ganglia
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - 10-11 ganglia
  - the trunk passes through the lumbar part of the diaphragm
  - the preganglionic fibres originate from the thoracic spinal segments
  - the white rami communicantes emerge from the intercostal nerves

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: rami communicantes grisei pars thoracica 1,rami communicantes grisei pars thoracica 2
latin: rami communicantes grisei gangliorum thoracicorum
en: Grey rami communicantes (thoracic part)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - join the intercostal nerves in thoracic part 
  - emerge from all ganglia of the sympathetic trunk
  - join the spinal nerves and innervate cutaneous glands and smooth muscle in the skin (the erector pili muscles)

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
object_id: rami communicantes albi pars thoracica 1,rami communicantes albi pars thoracica 2
latin: rami communicantes albi gangliorum thoracicorum
en: White rami communicantes (thoracic part)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - heavily myelinated axons of neurones from the intermediolateral nucleus
  - enter the ganglia of the sympathetic trunk
  - the preganglionic fibres enter ganglia from the level of the cervicothoracic ganglion (ganglion cervicothoracicum) to the lumbar ganglion (ganglion lumbale) L3

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
latin: rami vasculares gangliorum thoracicorum
en: Vascular branches of thoracic ganglia
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - follow the individual branches of the thoracic aorta
  - travel with arteries
  - form plexuses in the adventitia
  - provide sympathetic innervation of the organs and limbs


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: nervi cardiaci thoracici 1,nervi cardiaci thoracici 2
latin: nervi cardiaci thoracici*2
en: Thoracic cardiac nerves*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - arise from from the 2nd - 4th thoracic ganglia
  - terminate in the cardiac plexus (plexus cardiacus)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 314 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
latin: rami pulmonales partis sympathicae
en: Pulmonary branches of sympathetic part
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - arise from the 2nd - 5th thoracic ganglia
  - form the pulmonary plexus (plexus pulmonalis) with parasympathetic fibres from the vagus nerve


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
latin: rami oesophagei partis sympathicae
en: Oesophageal branches of sympathetic part
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - form the oesophageal plexus (plexus oesophageus) with parasympathetic branches from the left and right vagus nerves


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: nervus splanchnicus major 1,nervus splanchnicus major 2
latin: nervus splanchnicus major
en: Greater splanchnic nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - enters the abdominal cavity through the lumbar part of the diaphragm (through the innominate foramen)
  - terminates in the coeliac plexus (plexus coeliacus)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 314 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: nervus splanchnicus minor 1,nervus splanchnicus minor 2
latin: nervus splanchnicus minor
en: Lesser splanchnic nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - originates from the 10th and 11th thoracic ganglia
  - enters the abdomen through the lumbar part of the diaphragm
  - terminates in the coeliac, renal and adrenal plexuses (plexus coeliacus, plexus renalis et suprarenalis)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 314 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia thoracica trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: nervus splanchnicus imus 1,nervus splanchnicus imus 2
latin: nervus splanchnicus imus
en: Least splanchnic nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - arises from the 12th thoracic ganglion
  - terminates in the renal and adrenal plexus (plexus renalis et suprarenalis)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 314 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.4
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: pars sympathica
memorix_page: 370
object_id: ganglia lumbalia trunci sympathici 1,ganglia lumbalia trunci sympathici 2
latin: ganglia lumbalia trunci sympathici
en: Lumbar ganglia
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - 4-5 ganglia in the lumbar region
  - the preganglionic fibers originate from spinal segments L1-L3
  - the right sympathetic trunk (truncus sympathicus dexter) lies medially to the psoas major and posteriorly to the inferior vena cava
  - the left sympathetic trunk (truncus sympathicus sinister) lies medially to the psoas major and laterally to the abdominal aorta
  - both trunks enter the lesser pelvis and travel caudally

related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t12,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1,os coccygis


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia lumbalia trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: rami communicantes grisei pars lumbalia 1,rami communicantes grisei pars lumbalia 2
latin: rami communicantes grisei gangliorum lumbalium
en: Grey rami communicantes (lumbar part)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - join the intercostal nerves in llumbar part
  - emerge from all ganglia of the sympathetic trunk
  - join the spinal nerves and innervate cutaneous glands and smooth muscle in the skin (the erector pili muscles)

related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t12,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1,os coccygis


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia lumbalia trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: nervi splanchnici lumbales 1,nervi splanchnici lumbales 2
latin: nervi splanchnici lumbales
en: Lumbar splanchnic nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - terminate in the abdominal aortic plexus and the plexuses around the branches of the abdominal aorta

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 156 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.5
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: pars sympathica
object_id: ganglia sacralia trunci sympathici 1,ganglia sacralia trunci sympathici 2
latin: ganglia sacralia trunci sympathici
en: Sacral ganglia
related_objects: vertebrae lumbales l5,os coccygis,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - 4 pairs
  - are located on the pelvic surface of the sacrum, medial to the anterior sacral foramina (foramina sacralia anteriora)
  - trunk enter the lesser pelvis, travel caudally and merge together at the ganglion impar


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: ganglia sacralia trunci sympathici
memorix_page: 370
object_id: rami communicantes grisei pars sacralia 1,rami communicantes grisei pars sacralia 2
latin: rami communicantes grisei*3
en: Grey rami communicantes (sacral part)
related_objects: vertebrae lumbales l5,os coccygis,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - join the intercostal nerves in sacral part
  - emerge from all ganglia of the sympathetic trunk
  - join the spinal nerves and innervate cutaneous glands and smooth muscle in the skin (the erector pili muscles)


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.6
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Sympathetic part
parent: pars sympathica
object_id: ganglion impar
latin: ganglion impar
en: Ganglion impar
related_objects: vertebrae lumbales l5,os coccygis,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the caudal ganglion
  - is unpaired
  - is located in front of the coccyx
  - connects the left and right sympathetic trunks


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Thorax autonomic plexuses
parent: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
en: Thorax autonomic plexuses
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  <b>The mixed plexuses</b> of the thorax are <b>the cardiac plexus</b> (plexus cardiacus), <b>pulmonary plexus</b> (plexus pulmonalis), and <b>thoracic aortic plexus</b> (plexus aorticus thoracicus). The<b>thoracic aortic plexus passes along the aorta through the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm</b>into the retroperitoneal space, where it follows the branches of the aorta to reach the<b>abdominal organs.</b>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Thorax autonomic plexuses
parent: Thorax autonomic plexuses
latin: plexus cardiacus
en: Cardiac plexus
cell_type: 0
tags: maingroup_desc
en_description:
  <b>The cardiac plexus</b> continues along the left and right coronary arteries as the left and right coronary plexuses and participates in adjusting the diameter of their lumen. It reaches the conducting system of the heart along the branches of the coronary arteries, where it <b>regulates</b><b>heart rate</b>. <b>Sympathetic fibres</b> dilate the coronary arteries increasing perfusion of the heart. An increase in sympathetic activation results in tachycardia, higher contraction force, and a higher demand for oxygen and nutrients. <b>Parasympathetic fibres</b> constrict the coronary arteries. Increased parasympathetic activity causes bradycardia and lowers the metabolic demands of the myocardium.<br>
  - <indent=3em>spreads around the aortic arch and</indent>
  - <indent=3em>is subdivided according its relation to the aortic arch</indent>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Thorax autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus cardiacus
en_description: - <indent=3em>lies between the aortic arch and the pulmonary trunk
object_id: plexus cardiacus superficialis
latin: plexus cardiacus superficialis
en: Superficial cardiac plexus
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  ventriculus dexter,ventriculus sinister,atrium sinistrum,atrium dextrum,,paries posterolateralis ventriculi sinistri,paries posterolateralis atrii sinistri,paries anterolateralis ventriculi dextri,paries lateralis atrii dextri,bronchus principalis sinister,carina tracheae,tunica mucosa trachealia,paries membranaceus,ligamenta anularia,cartilagines tracheales,bronchus principalis dexter,aorta ascendens,arcus aortae,truncus pulmonaris,conus arterious,auricula dextra,


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Thorax autonomic plexuses
parent: Thorax autonomic plexuses
en_description: - <indent=3em>a mixed plexus supplying the lungs
latin: plexus pulmonalis
en: Pulmonary plexus
cell_type: 0
tags: maingroup_desc
general_description:
  <b>The pulmonary sympathetic fibres</b> dilate the bronchi. This occurs in response to increased oxygen demand. The dilated bronchi increase respiratory gas exchange. The work needed for active inspiration is indirectly decreased by bronchodilation.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Thorax autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus pulmonalis
en: Sympathetic fibres of pulmonary plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>dilate bronchial smooth muscle, widening the bronchial lumen</indent>
  - <indent=3em>inhibit secretion of mucosal glands</indent>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Thorax autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus pulmonalis
en: Parasympathetic fibers of pulmonary plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>increase tension of bronchial smooth muscle, narrowing the bronchial lumen
  - <indent=3em>stimulate secretion of mucosal glands


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
parent: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
memorix_page: 373
object_id: plexus aorticus abdominalis,plexus aorticus abdominalis f
latin: plexus aorticus abdominalis
en: Aortic abdominal plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - surrounds the abdominal aorta
  - splits into two iliac plexuses at the aortic bifurcation
  - ramifies into several smaller plexuses, which innervate individual organs

related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1,os coccygis,aorta abdominalis


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus coeliacus
en_description:
  - paired plexuses
  - innervate the kidneys

memorix_page: 373
object_id: plexus renalis 1,plexus renalis 2
latin: plexus renalis et suprarenalis
en: Renal plexuses
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 272 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Renal denervation</b> is an intravascular procedure that uses radiofrequency pulses to ablate the sympathetic fibres of the renal plexus. It is performed by entering a catheter into the femoral and passing it up the renal artery. It is used to treat intractable hypertension.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
parent: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
memorix_page: 373
object_id: plexus vesicalis 1,plexus vesicalis 2,plexus vesicalis f 1,plexus vesicalis f 2
latin: plexus uretericus
en: Ureteric plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates the ureters 5 Superior mesenteric plexus (plexus mesentericus superior)
  - is located at the point where the superior mesenteric artery emerges from the aorta
  - participates in the innervation of the intestines from the major duodenal papilla to the left colic flexure

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 272 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
parent: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
memorix_page: 373
object_id: plexus mesentericus superior
latin: plexus mesentericus superior
en: Superior mesenteric plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located at the point where the superior mesenteric artery emerges from the aorta
  - participates in the innervation of the intestines from the major duodenal papilla to the left colic flexure

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 272 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus mesentericus superior
memorix_page: 373
object_id: ganglion mesentericum superius
latin: ganglion mesentericum superius
en: Superior mesenteric ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - an unpaired ganglion
  - is located at the point where the superior mesenteric artery emerges from the aorta

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 272 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
parent: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
memorix_page: 373
object_id: plexus mesentericus inferior
latin: plexus mesentericus inferior
en: Inferior mesenteric plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located at the level of the inferior mesenteric artery
  - parasympathetic fibres come from the sacral part of the parasympathetic nervous system
  - innervates the descending colon, sigmoid colon and rectal ampulla

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 272 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Abdomen autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus mesentericus inferior
memorix_page: 373
object_id: ganglion mesentericum inferius
latin: ganglion mesentericum inferius
en: Inferior mesenteric ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - unpaired ganglion
  - there may be multiple inferior mesenteric ganglia
  - located at the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 272 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Pelvis autonomic plexuses
parent: Pelvis autonomic plexuses
memorix_page: 374
object_id: superior hypogastric plexus
latin: plexus hypogastricus superior / nervus presacralis
en: Superior hypogastric plexus / presacral nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the continuation of the abdominal aortic plexus (plexus aorticus abdominalis)
  - splits into the right and left hypogastric nerves (nervus hypogastricus dexter et sinister) at the sacral promontory

related_objects:
  vertebrae lumbales l5,os coccygis,os sacrum,pelvis,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Pelvis autonomic plexuses
parent: Pelvis autonomic plexuses
memorix_page: 374
latin: plexus hypogastricus inferior / plexus pelvicus
en: Inferior hypogastric plexus / pelvic plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a mixed plexus forming a continuation of the hypogastric nerves
  - passes laterally to the rectum into the lesser pelvis
  - the parasympathetic fibres come from the white communicating branches of S2-4 via te sacral splanchnic nerves
  - parasympathetic fibres synapse in ganglia close to the pelvic organs
  - branches into smaller plexuses which innervate the individual organs of the lesser pelvis and follow the branches of the internal iliac artery

object_id:
  plexus hypogastricus inferior 1,plexus hypogastricus inferior 2,plexus hypogastricus inferior f 1,plexus hypogastricus inferior f 2

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.3
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Pelvis autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus hypogastricus inferior / plexus pelvicus
memorix_page: 374
object_id: plexus prostaticus 1,plexus prostaticus 2
latin: plexus prostaticus
en: Prostatic plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates the smooth muscle of the prostate, prostatic part of urethra, prostatic and urethral glands and seminal glands

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.6
main_group: Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
sub_group: Pelvis autonomic plexuses
parent: plexus hypogastricus inferior / plexus pelvicus
en_description: - innervates the cavernous bodies of the penis and clitoris
memorix_page: 374
latin: nervi cavernosi clitoridis/penis
en: Cavernous nerves of clitoris/penis
cell_type: 0
object_id:
  nervi cavernosi penis 1,nervi cavernosi penis 2,nervi cavernosi clitoridis f 1,nervi cavernosi clitoridis f 2

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
latin: nervi craniales
en: Cranial nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The twelve pairs</b> of the cranial nerves emerge from the brain and brain stem. The first cranial nerve, <b>the olfactory nerve</b>, phylogenetically originates from the telencephalon. The second cranial nerve, <b>the optic nerve</b>, arises from <b>the diencephalon</b>. <b>The remaining ten pairs</b> emerge from <b>the brainstem</b>. From the developmental point of view, only these ten nerves are true cranial nerves.

general_description:
  <b>The cranial nerves</b> are marked by Roman numerals I-XII. 

  <b>A mnemonic for the origin of the cranial nerves:</b> <br>
  1-1-2-4-4 1 nerve emerges from the telencephalon<br>
  1 nerve emerges from the diencephalon <br>
  2 nerves emerge from the mesencephalon <br>
  4 nerves emerge from the pons <br>
  4 nerves emerge from the medulla oblongata<br>

   <b>The true cranial nerves</b> originate from the brainstem nuclei. The false cranial nerves are the olfactory nerve (n. I) and the optic nerve (n. II). The spinal root (radix spinalis) of the accessory and hypoglossal nerves arise from several spinal cord segments. They are drawn inside the skull during embryogenesis. This explains the close relation of the hypoglossal nerve to the deep cervical ansa. 

  <b>The branchial motor</b> (branchiomotor) neurones are somatomotor neurones for the muscles originating in the branchial (pharyngeal) arches.

   <b>The ganglia of the cranial nerves</b>, just as the ganglia of the spinal nerves, contain pseudounipolar neurones. However, these ganglia have a different embryologic origin. They originate from neural crest cells and cells of the epibranchial (epipharyngeal) placodes. 

  <b>The lateral mixed system</b> is the name for the common origin of the glossopharyngeal, vagus and accessory nerves from the medulla oblongata and their shared pathway through the jugular foramen out of the skull. These nerves also share some nuclei in the brainstem.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Olfactory nerve (N. I)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus olfactorius (N. I)
en: Olfactory nerve (N. I)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The <b>olfactory nerve</b> conducts the sensation of smell to the brain via the olfactory bulb and tract. It develops from a<b> pouch of the telencephalon.</b> It consists of the axons of the olfactory cells <b>(fila olfactoria)</b> in the<b> nasal mucosa</b>, which penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and enter the anterior cranial fossa, where they synapse with <b>the mitral cells</b> in the olfactory bulb. The axons of mitral cells travel in the olfactory tract to the <b>olfactory trigone</b> and the<b> olfactory area</b> of the cerebral cortex<br>
  <b>Afferent:</b> sense of smell<br>

general_description:
  <b>The neurones of the olfactory tract</b> send impulses to the olfactory cortex for the conscious perception of smell. They also send impulses to some subcortical structures (the amygdala, septum verum and dorsomedial thalamus). The subcortical connections work in cooperation with the limbic system to create emotional reactions and revoke both good and bad memories in response to smell.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Hyperosmia</b> is increased sensitivity to smell. 

  <b>Parosmia</b> is a qualitative smell defect. 

  <b>Hyposmia</b> is a reduced ability to smell. 

  <b>Anosmia</b> is a complete loss of smell.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Olfactory nerve (N. I)
parent: nervus olfactorius (N. I)
latin: regio olfactoria
en: Olfactory region
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - specialised olfactory epithelium on the roof of the nasal cavity and superior part of the nasal septum


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Olfactory nerve (N. I)
parent: nervus olfactorius (N. I)
object_id: nervus olfactorius
latin: fila olfactoria / nervus olfactorius
en: Olfactory nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - consists of bundles of axons of the olfactory cells
  - passes through the cribriform plate to synapse in the olfactory bulb

related_objects:
  os occipitale,os sphenoidale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Optic nerve (N. II)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus opticus (N. II)
en: Optic nerve (N. II)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The optic nerve carries <b>visual information</b> to the brain via the optic tract. It develops from a pouch of the diencephalon. It consists of the <b>axons of the retinal ganglion</b> cells (the 3rd order neurons of the optic pathway). It originates on the posterior side of the eyeball and enters the cranial cavity through the<b> optic canal</b>. It passes through the <b>optic chiasma, where about half of its fibres decussate with the contralateral nerve</b> and then continues as the <b>optic tract</b> to the lateral<b> geniculate nucleus in the metathalamus</b>. The meninges cover the optic nerve in its entire course from the brain to the eyeball. Dura mater forms the external sheath of the optic nerve and the leptomeninges form the internal sheath of the optic nerve. The central retinal artery enters the optic nerve in the orbit and supplies the retina.<br>
  <b>Afferent:</b> sense of vision<br>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Oculomotor nerve (N. III)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus oculomotorius (N. III)
en: Oculomotor nerve (N. III)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  There are <b>two nuclei</b> for the oculomotor nerve in the<b> midbrain</b>: the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve and the accessory posterior nucleus of the oculomotor nerve. The oculomotor nerve emerges from the midbrain in the<b> interpeduncular fossa</b>. It penetrates the dura mater to run laterally in the wall of the<b> cavernous sinus</b>. It <b>enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure</b>. <b>It carries parasympathetic fibres and somator motor fibres.</b> The parasympathetic fibres innervate the ciliary muscle, which focuses the eye on near objects (accomodation), and the sphincter pupillae, which constricts the pupil. The somatomotor fibres innervate most of the extraocular muscles.<b>The parasympathetic visceromotor</b> fibres synapse in the<b> ciliary ganglion</b>, which is located posterior to the eyball in the orbit.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1. </b>emerges from midbrain in the interpeduncular fossa
  <b>2. </b>penetrates the dura mater and runs laterocranially in the cavernous sinus
  <b>3. </b>enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure within the common tendinous ring (anulus tendineus communis)<br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> four eye muscles (the superior, inferior and medial rectus and the inferior oblique) and the levator palpebrae superioris
  <b>Visceromotor (parasympathetic):</b>  the ciliary body and the sphincter pupillae<br>

general_description:
  <b>The fibres of the oculomotor nerve</b> destined for the superior rectus decussate within the brain stem and join the contralateral nerve. 

  The sphincter pupillae</b> (m. sphincter pupillae) narrows the pupil (miosis).  

clinical_notes:
  <b>Unilateral paresis</b> of the oculomotor nerve causes divergent strabismus, dilated pupil (mydriasis), impaired accommodation (cycloplegia), ptosis and double vision (diplopia).


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Oculomotor nerve (N. III)
parent: nervus oculomotorius (N. III)
object_id: nervus oculomotorius
latin: nervus oculomotorius*2
en: Oculomotor nerve
cell_type: 0
tags: subgroup_desc
related_objects:
  os occipitale,os sphenoidale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1,n3 nucleus nervi oculomotorii


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.3
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Oculomotor nerve (N. III)
parent: nervus oculomotorius*2
object_id: ganglion ciliare
latin: ganglion ciliare*2
en: Ciliary ganglion*2
related_objects: os sphenoidale,os ethmoidale,corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a parasympathetic ganglion
  - is located within the orbit, posterior to the eyeball and lateral to the optic nerve


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Oculomotor nerve (N. III)
parent: ganglion ciliare*2
object_id: nervi ciliares breves
latin: nervi ciliares breves
en: Short ciliary nerves
related_objects: os sphenoidale,os ethmoidale,corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - contain parasympathetic postganglionic fibres, which leave the ciliary ganglion to innervate the ciliary muscle and sphincter pupillae


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Oculomotor nerve (N. III)
parent: nuclei nervi oculomotorii
object_id: n3 nucleus nervi oculomotorii
latin: nucleus nervi oculomotorii
en: Nucleus of oculomotor nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a somatomotor nucleus
  - innervates the superior, inferior and medial rectus, inferior oblique and levator palpebrae superioris


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Oculomotor nerve (N. III)
parent: nuclei nervi oculomotorii
object_id: n3 nucleus accessorius dorsalis nervi oculomotorii
latin: nucleus accessorius dorsalis nervi oculomotorii
en: Accessory posterior nucleus of oculomotor nerve / Edinger-Westphal nucleus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>Contraction of the ciliary muscle</b> (m. ciliaris) focuses the eye on near objects. Relaxation focuses the eye on distant objects.<b>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trochlear nerve (N. IV)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus trochlearis (N. IV)
en: Trochlear nerve (N. IV)
general_description: <b>The fibres of the trochlear nerve</b> decussate within the tectum of the mesencephalon.
clinical_notes: <b>Unilateral paresis</b> of the trochlear nerve causes diplopia while looking down and laterally
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The trochlear nerve decussates in the midbrain before emerging under the inferior colliculus. It is the<b> only nerve that leaves from the posterior side of the brainstem.</b> It passes the lateral surface of the mesencephalon to enter and run on the lateral wall of the<b> cavernous sinus.</b> It then enters the orbit via the <b>superior orbital fissure</b>. The trochlear nerve is exclusively <b>somatomotor</b> and innervates only one muscle:<b> the superior oblique</b>.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1.</b> emerges under the inferior colliculus on the posterior side of the mesencephalon
  <b>2. </b>passes around the cerebral peduncle within the cisterna ambiens
  <b>3.</b> runs laterocranially in the cavernous sinus
  <b>4. </b>enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure, but not within the common tendinous ring <br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> the superior oblique<br>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus trigeminus
en: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The trigeminal nerve leaves the <b>pons</b> at the level of the middle cerebellar peduncle. The nerve has two roots: a <b>sensory root</b> (radix sensoria) and a<b> motor root</b> (radix motoria). The trunk of the nerve is formed from both roots and runs towards the apex of petrous part of the temporal bone, where the somatosensory <b>trigeminal ganglion</b> is located in the <b>trigeminal impression</b> (impressio trigeminalis). The nerve then splits into <b>three terminal branches</b>: the ophthalmic nerve, the maxillary nerve and the mandibular nerve. The skin and organs of the face and head up to the interauricular line receive somatosensory fibres from branches of the trigeminal nerve. All three branches of the trigeminal nerve carry <b>somatosensory fibres</b>, but only the <b>mandibular nerve contains motor fibres</b>. They innervate the<b> masticatory muscles</b> and four other muscles, which originate <b>from the first pharyngeal arch</b>. Parasympathetic and sympathetic fibres join peripheral branches of trigeminal nerve at autonomic ganglia to innervate glands and smooth muscle of the head and neck.<br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> the 4 masticatory muscles (masseter, temporalis and lateral and medial pterygoids), mylohyoid, anterior belly of the digastric, tensor veli palatini and tensor tympani
  <b>Aomatosensory:</b> the skin of the head ventral to the interauricular line, the dura mater and oral and nasal mucosa<br>

general_description:
  <b>The trigeminal nerve</b> is the largest cranial nerve. 

  <b>The mesencephalic nucleus</b> of the trigeminal nerve receives proprioception information from the masticatory muscles. A feedback loop is located between it and the motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. This ensures optimal masticatory muscles tension and prevents damage of the teeth.

  <b>The function of this loop may be demonstrated as follows</b>: if you try to bite your tongue very strongly, the feedback loop diminishes the tension of the masticatory muscles in order to prevent injury. 

  <b>The principal nucleus</b> of the trigeminal nerve was formerly called the pontine nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. 

  The points at which the branches</b> of the trigeminal nerve leave the skull are palpable on the face: 
  <b>V1 (as the supraorbital nerve)</b> - in the eyebrows, on a line passing vertically through the pupil
  <b>V2 (as the infraorbital nerve) </b>- inferior to the eye, on a line between the pupil and angle of the mouth 
  <b>V3 (as the mental nerve) </b>- on the mandible, on a line passing vertically downwards from the angle of the mouth. 
  Painful palpation at any of these points signifies pathological irritation of the trigeminal nerve. 

  <b>The function of the trigeminal nerve</b> may be assessed by the following reflexes: 
  <b>The masseter reflex</b> is provoked by tapping the teeth of the lower jaw. Stretching tendon of the masseter evokes its contraction. 
  <b>The corneal reflex</b> is provoked by gently touching the conjunctiva. It results in the contraction of the orbicularis oculi (causing a wink). The ophthalmic nerve provides the afferent limb of the reflex arc and the facial nerve provides the efferent limb. 

  <b>The trigeminal nerve</b> innervates most of the meninges. Each of its branches gives off one meningeal branch: <b>
  <b>V1 - tentorial branch</b> ( ramus tentorius)</b> before passing through the superior orbital fissure <b>
  <b>V2 - meningeal branch</b> (ramus meningeus)</b> before passing through the foramen rotundum <b>
  <b>V3 - meningeal branch</b> (ramus meningeus) </b>is given off in the infratemporal fossa and enters the cranial cavity via the foramen spinosum. The ventral part of the falx cerebri is innervated by the anterior ethmoidal nerve. 

  <b>The tensor veli palatini</b> is the only muscle of the soft palate innervated by the trigeminal nerve and not by the pharyngeal plexus.
  A tiny part of the meninges around the jugular foramen is innervated by the vagus nerve.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Trigeminal neuralgia / prosopalgia</b> is characterised by intensive unbearable episodic facial pain in areas innervated by branches of the trigeminal nerve (the supraorbital, infraorbital and mental nerves). The most common cause is impingement of the trigeminal nerve by an aberrant loop of the superior cerebellar artery at the junction between the CNS and PNS, where oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells meet (the Obersteiner-Redlich zone). This may be treated by microvascular decompression. Nonlesional causes can be treated by gama-knife surgery (radiosurgery) of the trigeminal ganglion.


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: ganglion trigeminale
object_id: radix sensoria nervi trigemini
latin: radix sensoria nervi trigemini
en: Sensory root of trigeminal nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 542 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The sensory part of the trigeminal nerve</b> was formerly called the greater portion (portio major) and the motor part the lesser portion (portio minor).<b>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus trigeminus
object_id: nervus ophthalmicus
latin: nervus ophthalmicus (V1)
en: Ophthalmic nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>Fibres</b>
  - somatosensory innervation of the face (forehead, upper eyelids, nasal dorsum), part of the dura mater, the orbit and its content, part of the mucosa in the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  - passes through the superior orbital fissure into the orbit
  - some of its branches continue to the forehead

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 542 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Herpes zoster ophthalmicus</b> is caused by reactivation of the varicella- zoster virus in the ophthalmic nerve. It presents with a painful rash in of the skin innervated by the ophthalmic nerve and can affect the conjunctiva and cornea.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.1.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus ophthalmicus (V1)
object_id: nervus lacrimalis
latin: nervus lacrimalis
en: Lacrimal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - runs along the lateral rectus towards the lacrimal gland
  - receives a communicating branch with the zygomatic nerve (ramus communicans nervi lacrimalis cum nervo zygomatico), which brings parasympathetic fibres to the lacrimal gland
  - innervates the skin of the lateral part of the eyelid and the adjacent part of the conjunctiva

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,corpus maxillae 1,os palatinum 1,corpus maxillae 2,os palatinum 2,os nasale 1,os nasale 2,os zygomaticum 1,os zygomaticum 2,concha nasi inferior 1,os lacrimale 1,os occipitale,vomer,concha nasi inferior 2,os lacrimale 2,os sphenoidale,os ethmoidale,os temporale 1,os temporale 2


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus supraorbitalis
object_id: ramus lateralis nervi supraorbitalis
latin: ramus lateralis nervi supraorbitalis
en: Lateral branch of supraorbital nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - leaves the orbit via the supraorbital notch
  - innervates the skin of the upper eyelid and forehead

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus nasociliaris
object_id: ramus communicans cum ganglio ciliari
latin: ramus communicans cum ganglio ciliari
en: Communicating branch with ciliary ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - carries sensory fibres for the eyeball, which pass through the ciliary ganglion and then continue as the short ciliary nerves (nervi ciliares breves) to reach the eyeball

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus nasociliaris
object_id: nervus ethmoidalis anterior
latin: nervus ethmoidalis anterior
en: Anterior ethmoidal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - leaves the orbit through the anterior ethmoidal foramen, runs through the orbitocranial canal and then through the cribriform plate into the nasal cavity
  - sensory innervation of the frontal sinus, anterior nasal mucosa and skin of the apex and dorsum of the nose

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus nasociliaris
object_id: nervus infratrochlearis
latin: nervus infratrochlearis
en: Infratrochlear nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the terminal branch of the ophthalmic nerve
  - sensory innervation of the medial part of both eyelids and the adjacent conjunctiva

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus trigeminus
object_id: nervus maxillaris
latin: nervus maxillaris (V2)
en: Maxillary nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>Fibers</b>
  - somatosensory innervation of the middle part of the face (lower eyelid, upper lip, ala of nose and upper part of the cheek), upper teeth and part of the nasal, oral and nasopharyngeal mucosa <br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  - runs through the foramen rotundum to reach the pterygopalatine fossa
  - branches at the pterygopalatine ganglion

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 542 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus maxillaris (V2)
object_id: nervus zygomaticus
latin: nervus zygomaticus
en: Zygomatic nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - reaches the orbit via the inferior orbital fissure, runs on the inferior orbital wall
  - enters the zygomatico-orbital foramen and branches within the zygomatic bone

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus zygomaticus
object_id: ramus zygomaticofacialis
latin: ramus zygomaticofacialis
en: Zygomaticofacial branch
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - reaches the upper lateral part of the cheek via the zygomaticofacial foramen
  - innervates the skin of the zygomatic region

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus zygomaticus
object_id: nervus zygomaticotemporalis
latin: nervus zygomaticotemporalis
en: Zygomaticotemporal branch
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - reaches the temporal fossa by passing through the zygomaticotemporal foramen
  - innervates the skin of the temporal region

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2.2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus maxillaris (V2)
object_id: nervus infraorbitalis
latin: nervus infraorbitalis
en: Infraorbital nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - enters the orbit through the inferior orbital fissure, runs in the infra-orbital groove then enters the infra-orbital canal
  - leaves the infra-orbital canal through the infra-orbital foramen to reach the anterior surface of the maxilla,

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The three branches of the infraorbital nerve</b> (for the eyelid, nose and upper lip) in the infra-orbital foramen are collectively known as the pes anserinus minor.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Regional anaesthesia</b> is different for the upper and lower jaw. For the lower teeth it is administered at a single point posterior to the 3rd molar, next to the trunk of the inferior alveolar nerve. For the upper teeth there are 3 points (anterior, middle, posterior) to administer anaesthesia to the individual branches of the infraorbital nerve as they leave the maxilla.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2.3
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus maxillaris (V2)
object_id: rami alveolares superiores posteriores nervi maxillaris
latin: rami alveolares superiores posteriores
en: Posterior superior alveolar branches
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - travel towards the maxillary tuberosity and enter the alveolar foramina, then travel in the alveolar canals to reach the posterior upper teeth

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,os palatinum 1,os palatinum 2,os nasale 1,os nasale 2,os zygomaticum 1,os zygomaticum 2,concha nasi inferior 1,os lacrimale 1,os occipitale,vomer,concha nasi inferior 2,os lacrimale 2,os sphenoidale,os ethmoidale,os temporale 1,os temporale 2,dentes canini 3,dentes canini b3,dentes incisivi 1,dentes incisivi 2,dentes incisivi b1,dentes incisivi b2,dentes morales 6,dentes morales 7,dentes morales 8,dentes morales b7,dentes morales b8,dentes premolares 4,dentes premolares 5,dentes premolares b4,dentes premolares b5,dentes premolares b6,mandibula

general_description:
  <b>The superior and inferior dental and gingival branches</b> ( rami gingivales et dentales superiores and inferiores) form the superior and inferior dental plexus.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus trigeminus
object_id: nervus mandibularis
latin: nervus mandibularis (V3)
en: Mandibular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>FIBRES</b>
  - somatosensory innervation of the skin of the lower part of the face (lower lip, part of the cheek and chin), teeth of the lower jaw and part of the oral mucosa
  - innervation of 8 muscles: 4 masticatory muscles, anterior belly of digastric, mylohyoid, tensor veli palatini and tensor tympani<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  - travels through the foramen ovale to reach the infratemporal fossa, where it gives of its terminal branches
  - the otic ganglion is found on the medial side of the nerve

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 542 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3.4.3
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: Somatosensory branches of mandibular nerve
object_id: nervus auriculotemporalis
latin: nervus auriculotemporalis
en: Auriculotemporal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates part of the auricle and the skin of the temporal region
  - forms a loop around the middle meningeal artery

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3.4.4
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: Somatosensory branches of mandibular nerve
en_description:
  - innervates the teeth, gingiva and oral mucosa
  - passes through the mandibular foramen and canal

object_id: nervus alveolaris inferior
latin: nervus alveolaris inferior
en: Inferior alveolar nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,corpus maxillae 1,os palatinum 1,corpus maxillae 2,os palatinum 2,os nasale 1,os nasale 2,os zygomaticum 1,os zygomaticum 2,concha nasi inferior 1,os lacrimale 1,os occipitale,vomer,concha nasi inferior 2,os lacrimale 2,os sphenoidale,os ethmoidale,os temporale 1,os temporale 2,dentes canini 3,dentes canini b3,dentes incisivi 1,dentes incisivi 2,dentes incisivi b1,dentes incisivi b2,dentes morales 6,dentes morales 7,dentes morales 8,dentes morales b7,dentes morales b8,dentes premolares 4,dentes premolares 5,dentes premolares b4,dentes premolares b5,dentes premolares b6


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus alveolaris inferior
object_id: nervus mentalis
latin: nervus mentalis
en: Mental nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  the terminal branch emerging from the mental foramen
  - innervates the skin covering the body of the mandible

related_objects:
  vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,corpus maxillae 1,os palatinum 1,corpus maxillae 2,os palatinum 2,os nasale 1,os nasale 2,os zygomaticum 1,os zygomaticum 2,concha nasi inferior 1,os lacrimale 1,os occipitale,vomer,concha nasi inferior 2,os lacrimale 2,os sphenoidale,os ethmoidale,os temporale 1,os temporale 2,mandibula


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nervus lingualis
object_id: chorda tympani
latin: chorda tympani
en: Chorda tympani
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a branch of the facial nerve containing visceromotor and sensory taste fibers
  - joins the lingual nerve and continues to the submandibular ganglion and into the tongue
  - gustatory fibers carry taste information from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue (from the apex to the terminal sulcus, excluding the vallate papillae)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 319 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nuclei nervi trigemini
object_id: n5 nucleus mesencephalicus nervi trigemini
latin: nucleus mesencephalicus nervi trigemini
en: Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the most dorsal nucleus in the mesencephalon
  - receives proprioceptive information from the masticatory, mimetic and extra-ocular muscles


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nuclei nervi trigemini
object_id: n5 nucleus spinalis nervi trigemini
latin: nucleus spinalis nervi trigemini
en: Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located in the medulla oblongata and spinal cord (C1-3)
  - receives information about crude touch, pain and temperature
  - receives the same modalities from n. IX and n. X


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Trigeminal nerve (N. V)
parent: nuclei nervi trigemini
object_id: n5 nucleus motorius nervi trigemini
latin: nucleus motorius nervi trigemini
en: Motor nucleus of trigeminal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located in the pons
  - innervates the muscles of the first pharyngeal arch: masticatory muscles (masseter, temporalis, lateral and medial pterygoid), tensor tympani, tensor veli palatini, anterior belly of the digastric and the mylohyoid


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Abducent nerve (N. VI)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus abducens (N. VI)
en: Abducent nerve (N. VI)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The abducent nerve originates at the border between the pons and the medulla oblongata, the<b> medullopontine sulcus</b> (sulcus bulbopontinus). It travels ventrolaterally on the internal surface of the base of the skull, penetrates the meninges and runs medially within the <b>cavernous sinus</b>. It reaches the<b> orbit</b> through the <b>superior orbital fissure</b> and common tendinous ring and innervates the <b>lateral rectus</b>, which causes the eyeball to abduct.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1.</b> emerges from the medullopontine sulcus between the pons and medulla oblongata
  <b>2.</b> leaves the brainstem on the ventral side 
  <b>3.</b> runs on the base of the skull, penetrates the dura mater then runs through Dorello canal to enter the cavernous sinus
  <b>4. </b>enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure and common tendinous ring<br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> one eye muscle (the lateral rectus)<br>

general_description:
  <b>Dorello canal / canal of abducent nerve</b> is a passage between the apex of the petrous part of the temporal bone and the petrosphenoideal ligament of Gruber. It contains the abducent nerve and inferior petrosal sinus. The abducent nerve is in an extradural position as it travels in this canal.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Unilateral paresis of the abducent</b> nerve manifests as convergent strabism and diplopia (double vision) when looking to the side.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Facial nerve (N. VII)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus facialis (N. VII)
en: Facial nerve (N. VII)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The facial nerve develops from the<b> 2nd pharyngeal arch</b>. It innervates <b>all the facial muscles</b>. It emerges from the pons near the cerebellopontine angle as two roots: the facial motor root and the intermediate nerve. The facial motor root carries somatomotor fibres and the intermediate nerve carries visceromotor and special sensory fibres. The two roots run in the<b> internal acoustic meatus</b> and then pass through the<b> facial nerve canal where they unite</b>. The facial nerve leaves the skull through the<b> stylomastoid foramen</b>. It gives off its terminal branches within the substance of the <b>parotid gland</b>.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1.</b> within the brainstem, it turns around the nucleus of the abducens nerve and thus elevates the facial colliculus on the floor of the fourth ventricle
  <b>2.</b> leaves the pons at the pontocerebellar angle
  <b>3.</b> runs in the posterior cerebral fossa
  <b>4.</b> enters the internal acoustic canal and passes through the anterior superior quadrant of the fundus
  - this is where the facial canal / Fallopian canal (canalis nervi facialis) starts
  <b>5.</b> travels through the facial canal
  <b>5.1</b> runs ventrolaterally in the labyrinthic part (pars labyrinthica),
  <b>5.2</b> takes a 90° turn at the geniculum of the facial canal (geniculum canalis nervi facialis),
  <b>5.3</b> runs dorsolaterally in the tympanic part (pars tympanica),
  <b>5.4</b> runs caudally in the mastoid part (pars mastoidea)
  <b>6.</b> leaves the skull via the stylomastoid foramen (foramen stylomastoideum)
  <b>7.</b> enters the parotid gland, where it splits into inferior and superior branches, which form the parotid plexus (plexus intraparotideus), which gives rise to the terminal branches for the facial muscles<br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> the stapedius, mimetic muscles, platysma, stylohyoid and posterior belly of the digastric
  <b>Visceromotor </b>(parasympathetic): sublingual, submandibular and lacrimal glands and other small glands (nasal, palatine and nasopharyngeal)
  <b>Special sensory:</b> sense of taste in the anterior 2/3 of the tongue<br>

clinical_notes:
  <b>Central paralysis of the facial nerve</b> presents as a drop of the contralateral angle of the mouth. However, innervation of both eyelids remains unaltered. The most common cause is a stroke.

  <b> Peripheral paralysis of the facial nerve</b> may arise from a lesion at any point of the nerve. It presents as dysfunction of both the upper and lower branches, so that one whole half of the face is affected. Apart from paresis of the orbicularis oris it has other manifestation, including: 
  <b>Lagophthalmus</b> - an inability to close the eye caused by dysfunction of the orbicularis oculi. 
  <b>Xerophthalmia</b> - conjunctival and corneal dryness caused by dysfunction of the lacrimal gland. It increases the risk of corneal scaring and subsequent blindness and eye infections.
  <b>Xerostomia</b> - dryness of the mouth due to dysfunction of the sublingual and submandibular glands. 
  <b>Hyperacusis</b> - pain when hearing loud sounds due to an impaired stapedial reflex.
  <b>Hypogeusis</b> - decreased perception of taste caused by dysfunction of the chorda tympani. 

  <b>If the facial nerve is transsected</b> (e.g. in parotidectomy), the lesion can be bridged by a graft from either the sural or hypoglossal nerve.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 7.2.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Facial nerve (N. VII)
parent: Branches arising within the facial canal
object_id: nervus petrosus major
latin: nervus petrosus major
en: Greater petrosal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - emerges from geniculum of the facial canal and runs in the canal for the greater petrosal nerve
  - travels through the hiatus for the greater petrosal nerve, then lies in the groove for the greater petrosal nerve
  - runs through the sphenopetrosal synchondrosis and the pterygoid canal
  - reaches the pterygopalatine fossa where it terminates in the pterygopalatine ganglion
  - brings parasympathetic fibres from superior salivatory nucleus and some taste fibres to the pterygopalatine ganglion

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 329 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 7.2.2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Facial nerve (N. VII)
parent: Branches arising within the facial canal
object_id: ganglion geniculi
latin: ganglion geniculi
en: Geniculate ganglion
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a special sensory ganglion of the facial nerve located in the first flexure of the facial canal within the petrous part of the temporal bone
  - contains pseudounipolar neurons for the chorda tympani (taste fibres)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 329 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 7.2.4
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Facial nerve (N. VII)
parent: Branches arising within the facial canal
object_id: chorda tympani
latin: chorda tympani*3
en: Chorda tympani*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - branches from the facial nerve in the mastoid part of the facial canal
  - passes through the canaliculus for the chorda tympani to reach the tympanic cavity
  - runs within a mucosal fold between malleus and stapes and then turns ventrocaudally towards the petrotympanic fissure
  - leaves the tympanic cavity via the petrotympanic fissure to enter the infratemporal fossa
  - joins the lingual nerve to travel to the submandibular ganglion
  - provides parasympathetic innervation for the submandibular and sublingual glands and the lingual glands in the anterior 2/3 of the tongue

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 329 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Facial nerve (N. VII)
parent: nuclei nervi facialis
object_id: n9 nucleus nervi facialis
latin: nucleus nervi facialis
en: Motor nucleus of facial nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a somatomotor nucleus for innervation of all facial muscles, platysma, stylohyoid and posterior belly of the digastric


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Facial nerve (N. VII)
parent: nuclei nervi facialis
object_id: n12 nucleus salivatorius superior
latin: nucleus salivatorius superior
en: Superior salivatory nucleus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a visceromotor nucleus for parasympathetic innervation of the lacrimal gland, nasal glands, palatine glands, nasopharyngeal glands, submandibular gland, sublingual gland and lingual glands


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Facial nerve (N. VII)
parent: nuclei nervi facialis
latin: nucleus gustatorius
en: Gustatory nucleus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a special sensory nucleus
  - the rostral part of the nuclei of the solitary tract
  - receives impulses from the chorda tympani

general_description:
  <b>The gustatory nucleus</b> is located in the rostral part of the solitary tract. It receives taste fibres from the facial nerve and sends impulses to the thalamus and cortex.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vestibulocochlear nerve (N. VIII)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus vestibulocochlearis (N. VIII)
en: Vestibulocochlear nerve (N. VIII)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  <b>The vestibulocochlear nerve</b> emerges from the <b>pons</b> at the <b>pontocerebellar angle</b>. It passes through the<b> internal acoustic meatus</b> and bifurcates into the cochlear nerve and the vestibular nerve. <b>The cochlear nerve</b> transmits sound information. It consists of axons of the bipolar neurons of the cochlear ganglion, whose cell bodies are located in the modiolus of the bony cochlear. Their dendrites receive signals from the spiral organ of Corti and their axons synapse in the<b> two cochlear nuclei</b> (anterior and posterior) in the brainstem. <b>The vestibular nerve</b> transmits information about balance, motion and acceleration. It is formed by axons of the <b>bipolar neurons of the vestibular ganglion</b> travelling through the internal acoustic meatus. Their dendrites receive information from <b>the saccule, utricule and semicircular ducts</b> and their axons synapse in the <b>four vestibular nuclei</b> (superior, inferior, medial and lateral) in the pons and in the cerebellum.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1.</b> leaves the pons at the pontocerebellar angle
  <b>2.</b> runs in the posterior cranial fossa
  <b>3.</b> enters the internal acoustic meatus via the internal acoustic opening
  - the cochlear nerve penetrates the anterior inferior quadrant (the cochlear area) of the fundus with the tractus spiralis foraminosus
  - the vestibular nerve penetrates the superior and inferior posterior quadrants (vestibular areas)<br>
  <b>Special sensory:</b> sense of hearing and balance<br>

general_description:
  <b>The stato-acoustic nerve</b> (nervus statoacusticus) is an obsolete for the vestibulocochelar nerve.


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vestibulocochlear nerve (N. VIII)
parent: nervus cochlearis
en_description: - is located in the modiolus of the bony cochlea
latin: ganglion cochleare
en: Cochlear ganglion
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The spiral ganglion of Corti</b> ( ganglion spirale) is an obsolete term for the cochlear ganglion. 


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 8.2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vestibulocochlear nerve (N. VIII)
parent: nervus vestibulocochlearis (N. VIII)
latin: nuclei nervi vestibulocochlearis
en: Nuclei of vestibulocochlear nerve
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The vestibular nuclei</b> are located in the vestibular area under the floor of the fourth ventricle.


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vestibulocochlear nerve (N. VIII)
parent: nuclei nervi vestibulocochlearis
en_description: - special sensory nuclei of the cochlear nerve
object_id: n8 nuclei cochleares anterior
latin: nucleus cochlearis anterior et posterior
en: Anterior and posterior cochlear nuclei
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The cochlear nuclei</b> are situated under the acoustic tuberculum, which is located in the lateral corner of the fourth ventricle.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 9
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Glossopharyngeal nerve (N. IX)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus glossopharyngeus (N. IX)
en: Glossopharyngeal nerve (N. IX)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The glossopharyngeal nerve emerges from the medulla oblongata at the<b> retro-olivary groove</b> and leaves the cranial cavity via the<b> jugular foramen.</b> It <b>forms the lateral mixed system</b> with the vagus and accessory nerves. It contains<b> motor, sensory and special sensory fibres</b>. It innervates the muscles of the pharynx and soft palate, glands and mucosa of the pharynx, posterior third of the tongue, parotid gland and middle ear. It transmits taste impulses from the posterior<b> third of the tongue and the vallate papillae</b>.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1.</b> emerges from the medulla oblongata at the retro-olivary groove with the vagus and accessory nerves
  <b>2.</b> leaves the cranial cavity via the jugular foramen
  <b>3.</b> forms the superior ganglion above the jugular foramen and the inferior ganglion just below it
  <b>4.</b> after leaving the skull, runs between the internal carotid artery and the internal jugular vein
  <b>5.</b> joins the lateral side of the stylopharyngeus, which it innervates, and enters the pharyngeal wall, where it contributes to forming the pharyngeal plexus<br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> the stylopharyngeus
  <b>Visceromotor</b> (parasympathetic): innervation of the parotid gland and buccal glands
  <b>Viscerosomatosensory: </b>carotid body and carotid sinus
  <b>Somatosensory:</b> mucosa of the posterior part of the tongue, isthmus of the fauces, posterior part of the oral cavity, superior half of the pharynx, palatine tonsils and tympanic cavity
  <b>Special sensory: </b>taste in the posterior third of the tongue<br>

clinical_notes:
  <b>Unilateral lesions of the vestibulocochlear nerve</b> cause hearing loss (hypacusis), tinnitus, vertigo, nystagmus (involuntary repetitive eye movements) and gait disorders (titubation). 

  <b>Unilateral paresis of the glossopharyngeal nerve</b> presents as dysphagia (difficulty of swallowing), impaired gag reflex, loss of sensitivity and mildly decreased taste perception (hypogeusis). 

  <b>Glossopharyngeal neuralgia</b> presents as episodic severe pain in the regions supplied by the glossopharygenal nerve (ear, root of tongue, nasopharynx and tonsils).


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Glossopharyngeal nerve (N. IX)
parent: nervus tympanicus
object_id: nervus petrosus minor
latin: nervus petrosus minor
en: Lesser petrosal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a branch arising in the tympanic cavity carrying parasympathetic fibres
  - passes through the canal, hiatus and groove for the lesser petrosal nerve
  - penetrates via the petrosal foramen or the foramen lacerum (through sphenopetrosal synchondrosis) to reach the infratemporal fossa
  - synapses in the otic ganglion
  - parasympathetic visceromotor innervation of the parotid and buccal glands

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 329 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 9.1.2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Glossopharyngeal nerve (N. IX)
parent: nervus glossopharyngeus
object_id: ramus sinus carotici
latin: ramus sinus carotici
en: Carotid branch
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  2 Carotid branch (ramus sinus carotici)
  - descends to the carotid sinus and carotid body
  - transfers viscerosensory information from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 329 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 9.1.3
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Glossopharyngeal nerve (N. IX)
parent: nervus glossopharyngeus
object_id: rami pharyngei nervi glossopharyngei
latin: rami pharyngei nervi glossopharyngei
en: Pharyngeal branches
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - form the pharyngeal plexus, which provides motor and sensory innervation of the pharyngeal muscles, pharyngeal mucosa and muscles of the soft palate

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 329 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 9.2.2
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Glossopharyngeal nerve (N. IX)
parent: nuclei nervi glossopharyngei
object_id: n9 nucleus salivatorius inferior
latin: nucleus salivatorius inferior
en: Inferior salivatory nucleus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a parasympathetic visceromotor nucleus
  - innervates the parotid and buccal glands and the glands of the auditory tube
  - its fibers synapse in the otic ganglion and tympanic ganglion


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 9.2.4
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Glossopharyngeal nerve (N. IX)
parent: nuclei nervi glossopharyngei
latin: nucleus gustatorius*2
en: Gustatory nucleus*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a special sensory nucleus
  - the rostral part of the nuclei of the solitary tract
  - transmits taste information from the posterior third of the tongue and vallate papillae


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus vagus (N. X)
en: Vagus nerve (N. X)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The vagus nerve originates in <b>the retro-olivary groove</b> of the medulla oblongata and leaves the cranial cavity via the<b> jugular foramen</b>. It <b>forms the lateral mixed system</b> with the glossopharyngeal and accessory nerves. It contains<b> motor, sensory and special sensory (taste)</b> fibres and is the only cranial nerve to reach <b>the abdominal cavity</b>. It gives numerous branches, which provide<b> parasympathetic and viscerosensory</b> innervation to the organs of the neck, thorax and abdomen, down to the Cannon-Böhm point at the left end of the transverse colon.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b></b>1. leaves the medulla oblongata in the retro-olivary groove with the glossopharyngeal and accessory nerves
  <b>2</b>. leaves the cranial cavity via the jugular foramen
  <b>3</b>. its superior ganglion is located above the level of the jugular foramen and inferior ganglion below it
  <b>4.</b> runs in the visceral space of the neck with the internal jugular vein and the internal carotid artery (caudally with the common carotid artery) within the carotid sheath
  <b>5.</b> descends through the superior thoracic aperture, runs dorsally to the bronchi and caudally joins the oesophagus
  - gives off the right recurrent laryngeal nerve, which passes under the right subclavian artery, and the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, which passes under the aortic arch
  <b>6.</b> in the posterior mediastinum, the left vagus nerve moves so it becomes ventral to the oesophagus and the right vagus nerve moves so it becomes dorsal to the oesophagus
  <b>7.</b> the left vagus forms the ventral trunk and the right vagus forms the dorsal trunk follows the oesophagus through the diaphragm via the oesophageal hiatus
  <b>8. </b>parasympathetic branches in the abdominal cavity give rise to the autonomic plexuses
  <b>9.</b> branches reach the individual organs together with vessels<br>
  <b>Somatomotor: </b>muscles of the pharynx, larynx and soft palate
  <b>Visceromotor:</b> (parasympathetic): trachea, bronchi, lungs, heart, oesophagus, liver, pancreas, small intestine, vermiform appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon, spleen, adrenals, kidneys, ovaries, testes
  <b>Viscerosensory:</b> the aforementioned organs
  <b>Somatosensory:</b> part of the auricle, external acoustic meatus, dura mater, larynx and pharynx
  <b>Special sensory: </b>taste in the epiglottis

general_description:
  <b>The left vagus nerve</b> travels ventrally and the right vagus nerve travels dorsally to the oesophagus. This is due to the rotation of the primitive gut of 90° clockwise during embryogenesis. 

  <b>The vagus nerve</b> innervates the pharyngeal muscles (except for the stylopharyngeus), muscles of the soft palate (except for the tensor veli palatini), laryngeal muscles and muscles of the upper half of the esophagus. 

  The function of the vagus nerve may be assessed by the following reflexes: 
  <b>The pharyngeal (gag) reflex</b> is triggered by touching the root of the tongue, pharyngeal wall or palatine arches. It evokes contraction of the pharyngeal muscles and causes nausea.
  <b> The oculocardial reflex</b> (Aschner- Dagnini reflex) is induced by stimulating the vagus nerve by applying pressure on the eyeballs. This causes a decrease in pulse rate. The reflex can also be stimulated by pressing the carotid sinus or hitting the epigastrium (to irritate the coeliac plexus) or the testes. 

  <b>The auricular branch of the vagus nerve</b> (Arnold nerve) innervates a small area in the concha of the auricle and external acoustic meatus called the Ramsay Hunt zone.

  <b> The principal gastric branch of Latarjet</b> (from the anterior gastric branch) supplies the lesser curvature of the stomach. Selective vagotomy used to be performed to treat peptic ulcer by surgically interrupting this nerve

clinical_notes:
  <b>.Unilateral paresis of the vagus nerve</b> causes dysphagia, hoarseness and divergence of the uvula.

  <b>Bilateral paresis of the vagus nerve</b> causes rhinolalia, speech defects (dysarthria) and paresis of both vocal cords. 

  <b>Irritation of the vagus nerve</b> may cause bradycardia, smooth muscle spasms (laryngospasm, bronchospasm) and disturbances in gastrointestinal passage.

  <b> In pharmacoresistant depression</b> or epilepsy, vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) is a therapeutic option.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: nervus vagus (N. X)
object_id: nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2
latin: nervus vagus
en: Vagus nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t4,os sphenoidale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2,cerebellum 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei lateralis thalami 2,nuclei lateralis thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,nuclei anteriores thalami 1,lamina terminalis 2,lamina terminalis 1,lamina medullaris medialis 2,lamina medullaris medialis 1,epithalamus 2,epithalamus 1,corpus callosum 2,corpus callosum 1


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10.4
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Branches of vagus nerve
object_id: ramus glomi carotici
latin: ramus glomi carotici
en: Branch for carotid body
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - viscerosensory fibers entering the branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve for the carotid body and carotid sinus
  - carries baroreceptor and chemoreceptor information

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: nervus laryngeus superior
object_id: ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris 1,ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris 2
latin: ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris
en: Internal branch of Superior laryngeal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a sensory branch for the upper larynx, root of the tongue and epiglottis
  - enters the larynx through the thyrohyoid membrane

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: nervus laryngeus superior
object_id: ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 1,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 2
latin: ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris
en: External branch of Superior laryngeal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a mixed branch, which travels with the superior thyroid artery and innervates the cricothyroid and certain pharyngeal muscles
  - carries parasympathetic and viscerosensory branches for the thyroid and parathyroid glands

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10.6
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Branches of vagus nerve
object_id: nervus laryngeus recurrens 1,nervus laryngeus recurrens 2
latin: nervus laryngeus recurrens
en: Recurrent laryngeal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates the majority of the laryngeal muscles and the laryngeal mucosa below the vocal cords
  - on the right side, it passes under the right subclavian artery, on the left side under the aortic arch
  - runs cranially between the trachea and oesophagus in the tracheo-oesophageal groove

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: nervus laryngeus recurrens
latin: nervus laryngeus inferior nervi laryngei recurrentis
en: Terminal branch / inferior laryngeal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates the laryngeal muscles (except for the cricothyroid) and laryngeal mucosa below the vocal folds


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10.7.1
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: rami cardiaci nervi vagi
latin: plexus cardiacus*2
en: Cardiac plexus*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a mixed plexus for the heart
  - contain the parasympathetic cardiac branches from the vagus nerve and sympathetic cardiac nerves from the sympathetic trunk

general_description:
  <b>The cardiac plexus</b> continues along the left and right coronary arteries as the left and right coronary plexuses and participates in adjusting the diameter of their lumen. It reaches the conducting system of the heart along the branches of the coronary arteries, where it regulates heart rate. Sympathetic fibres dilate the coronary arteries increasing perfusion of the heart. An increase in sympathetic activation results in tachycardia, higher contraction force, and a higher demand for oxygen and nutrients. Parasympathetic fibres constrict the coronary arteries. Increased parasympathetic activity causes bradycardia and lowers the metabolic demands of the myocardium.

  <b>Accelerating nerves</b> (nervi accelerantes) is an obsolete name for the sympathetic cardiac nerves, which accelerate heart rate. Retarding nerves (nervi retardantes) in an obsolete name for the parasympathetic cardiac branches, which slow the heart rate.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10.9
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Branches of vagus nerve
latin: rami pulmonales nervi vagi
en: Pulmonary branches of vagus nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - viscerosensory and visceromotor fibres
  - the continuation of the bronchial branches into the lungs


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10.12
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Branches of vagus nerve
object_id: rami hepatici
latin: rami hepatici nervi vagi
en: Hepatic branches*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - visceromotor and viscerosensory fibers for the liver
  - run along the common hepatic artery and hepatic artery proper

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 272 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10.13
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Branches of vagus nerve
latin: rami renales nervi vagi
en: Renal branches*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - viscerosensory and visceromotor branches for the kidneys, upper part of the urinary tract, adrenals and (partially) testes/ovaries


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 10.14
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Branches of vagus nerve
latin: rami coeliaci nervi vagi
en: Coelic branches*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - visceromotor and viscerosensory branches, which along with the sympathetic nerves form the coeliac plexus
  - plexuses for the adrenals, kidneys, pancreas, ovaries, testes, small intestine, caecum, ascending colon and 2/3 of the transverse colon (to the Cannon-Böhm point, where they meet with the parasympathetic branches from the sacral plexus)


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: rami coeliaci nervi vagi
object_id: plexus coeliacus
latin: plexus coeliacus*2
en: Coeliac plexus*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a mixed plexus for the abdominal organs containing the parasympathetic and viscerosensory fibers from the n. X and sympathetic fibers from the splanchnic nerves

related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1,os coccygis,aorta abdominalis,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Proper nuclei of the vagus nerve
object_id: n10 nucleus posterior nervi vagi
latin: nucleus posterior nervi vagi
en: Posterior nucleus of vagus nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a parasympathetic visceromotor nucleus
  - innervates the smooth muscle and glands of the internal organs
  - innervates the myocardium and conducting system of the heart


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Proper nuclei of the vagus nerve
object_id: n7 n9 n10 nuclei tractus solitarii
latin: nuclei tractus solitarii*2
en: Nuclei of solitary tract*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a viscerosensory nucleus
  - the axons synapse in the superior and inferior ganglia in the area of the jugular foramen


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: nuclei tractus solitarii*2
latin: nucleus gustatorius*3
en: Gustatory nucleus*3
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a special sensory nucleus
  - the rostral part of the nuclei of the solitary tract
  - receives taste information from the epiglottis, epiglottic valleculae and part of the root of the tongue


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Vagus nerve (N. X)
parent: Nucleus of the trigeminal nerve
object_id: n5 nucleus principalis nervi trigemini
latin: nucleus spinalis nervi trigemini*4
en: Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve*4
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a somatosensory nucleus
  - receives sensory fibres from part of the auricle, external acoustic meatus, dura mater and mucosa of the larynx and pharynx


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 11
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Accessory nerve (N. XI)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus accessorius (N. XI)
en: Accessory nerve (N. XI)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The accessory nerve emerges from the medulla oblongata at the<b> retro-olivary groove</b> and leaves the cranial cavity via the<b> jugular foramen</b>. It forms the <b>lateral mixed system</b> with the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves. It contains <b>somatomotor fibres</b> that innervate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius. The accessory nerve is the only cranial nerve, which has a <b>nucleus outside the brainstem</b> (in the cervical spinal cord). Its fibres merge inside the skull at the level of the foramen magnum to form the trunk of the accessory nerve.<br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1. </b>leaves the cranial cavity via the jugular foramen
  <b>2. </b>passes behind the internal jugular vein and the transverse process of the atlas
  <b>3. </b>continues through the sternocleidomastoid towards the trapezius
  <b>4. </b>runs within the trapezius parallel to the medial border of the scapula<br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> trapezius and sternocleidomastoid some branches join the vagus nerve to innervate the laryngeal muscles<br>

general_description:
  <b>The name of the accessory nerve</b> originates from its older name nervus accessorius ad vagum (accessory to vagus), because some of its fibres join the vagus nerve. 

  <b>The sternocleidomastoid and trapezius</b> receive somatomotor fibers from the accessory nerve and spinal segments C2-C4. The spinal root of the accessory innervates muscles derived from somites and was secondarily encompassed into the cranial cavity and therefore separated from direct muscular branches.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The external branch of the accessory</b> nerve can be easily harmed at the spine of the scapula. This can occur from falls on to the back. Lesions in this location impair the ascending part of the trapezius, which is then not able to rotate the scapula, preventing the arm from being abducted above the level of the shoulder. The anterior serratus has a synergistic function, but it is not able to perform this movement alone due to the excessive mass of the limb. The superior angle of the scapula protrudes outwards in what is called a winged scapula (scapula alata).


system: nervous
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Accessory nerve (N. XI)
parent: nuclei nervi accessorii
object_id: n11 nucleus spinalis nervi accessori
latin: nucleus spinalis nervi accessorii
en: Spinal nucleus of accessory nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - spinal roots (radix spinalis) from spinal segments C1-C6
  - ascend laterally to the spinal cord and reach the posterior cranial fossa via the foramen magnum


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 12
main_group: Cranial nerves
sub_group: Hypoglossal nerve (N. XII)
parent: nervi craniales
latin: nervus hypoglossus (N. XII)
en: Hypoglossal nerve (N. XII)
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The hypoglossal nerve emerges from the medulla oblongata at the<b> pre-olivary groove</b> and leaves the cranial cavity via the <b>hypoglossal canal</b>. It forms an arch in its course in the neck. <b>Somatomotor fibres</b> from the cervical plexus (the superior root of the deep cervical ansa) join the nerve, but leave it after a short distance. The hypoglossal nerve innervates the <b>muscles of the tongue.</b>  The hypoglossal nerve joins and travels with the superior root of the deep ansa cervicalis (radix superior ansae cervicalis profundae). However, it does not participate in the motor innervation of the infrahyoid muscles. <br>
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1</b>. leaves the cranial cavity via the hypoglossal canal
  <b>2.</b> passes ventrally between the internal jugular vein and the internal carotid artery
  <b>3.</b> forms an arch in the carotid triangle and continues into the submandibular triangle
  <b>4.</b> enters the root of the tongue where it gives off its terminal branches<br>
  <b>Somatomotor:</b> 3 extraglossal (genioglossus, styloglossus and hyoglossus) and 4 intraglossal muscles (superior and inferior longitundinal, transverse and vertical muscles)<br>

general_description:
  <b>The hypoglossal nerve</b> does not participate in the innervation of the thyrohyoid. Fibres from the cervical plexus (C1) run with the hypoglossal to innervate the thyrohoid.

clinical_notes:
  <b> Lesions of the nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve</b> cause fine trembling of muscle fibres (fasciculation). 

  <b>Unilateral paresis of the hypoglossal nerve</b> cause deviation of the tongue to the side of the lesion (hemiglossoplegia) and atrophy of the muscles and mucosa of the tongue.


system: nervous
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
latin: Complexus stimulans cordis
en: Conducting system of the heart
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The heart has the capacity to <b>generate and conduct electric impulses</b>. These impulses are <b>produced in the sinoatrial node </b>in the right atrium. They pass through the atria to the <b>atrioventricular node </b>and then pass through the <b>bundle of His </b>to reach the ventricles. After passing through the atrioventricular septum, the bundle of His divides into the <b>right and left bundles of Tawara, </b>which carry the impulses down the interventricular septum and into the left and right ventricles. The final branches of the cardiac conduction system are the <b>subendocardial branches of Purkinje</b>, which spread the impulses throughout the ventricular muscle.

general_description:
  <b>The sympathetic system </b>increases the strength and frequency of myocardial contractions and the conductivity and excitability of the myocardium (positive inotropic, chronotropic, dromotropic, and bathmotropic effects, respectively).<br>
  <b>The parasympathetic system </b>decreases the strength and frequency of myocardial contractions and the conductivity and excitability of the myocardium (negative inotropic, chronotropic, dromotropic, and bathmotropic effects, respectively).

clinical_notes:
  <b>A heart block </b>is a block in the conducting system of the heart, which prevents the propagation of action potential through certain parts of the heart. Heart blocks are differentiated by their ECG profiles and clinical manifestations.<br>
  <b>Sick sinus syndrome </b>is a disorder of the sinoatrial node (the main pacemaker of the heart). Many different patterns of the heart rhythm are typical for this syndrome.<br>
  <b>Atrioventricular blockages </b>represent affections of the atrioventricular communication and action potential transmission. Three stages of AV block are distinguished: 1st, 2nd and 3rd degree block<br>
  <b>Types of bundle branch block</b>: right block, left anterior hemiblock and left posterior hemiblock.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Parts of conducting system
parent: Parts of conducting system
memorix_page: 273
object_id: nodus sinuatrialis
latin: nodus sinuatrialis
en: Sinu-atrial node of Keith-Flack / SA node
cell_type: 0
master_object: Conducting system of the heart
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>is located in the right atrium between the superior vena cava and the right auricle</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the main pacemaker of the heart, action potentials spread through atrial myocardium and interatrial connections to the AV node</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Parts of conducting system
parent: Parts of conducting system
memorix_page: 273
object_id: nodus atrioventricularis
latin: nodus atrioventricularis
en: Atrioventricular node of Aschoff -Tawara / AV node
cell_type: 0
master_object: Conducting system of the heart
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>is located in the right atrium within the triangle of Koch</indent>
  - <indent=3em>is responsible for slowing SA impulses and passing transmission onto the atrioventricular fascicle</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Parts of conducting system
parent: Parts of conducting system
memorix_page: 273
object_id: fasciculus atrioventricularis
latin: fasciculus atrioventricularis
en: Atrioventricular fascicle of Kent-Gaskell-His / Bundle of His
cell_type: 0
master_object: Conducting system of the heart
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>the continuation of the AV node, runs through the right fibrous triangle into the posterior part of the membranous part of the interventricular septum, then continuous caudally and enters the muscular part of the interventricular septum, where it divides into the bundles of Tawara

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Parts of conducting system
parent: fasciculus atrioventricularis
memorix_page: 273
object_id: crus sinistrum fasciculi atrioventricularis
latin: crus sinistrum fasciculi atrioventricularis
en: Left bundles of Tawara
cell_type: 0
master_object: Conducting system of the heart
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>run through the interventricular septum to the heart apex where they divides into the subendocardial branches, the right bundle runs through the septomarginal trabecula of the right ventricle</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the left bundle divides into an anterior and a posterior branch (limbus anterior et posterior)</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.1
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Parts of conducting system
parent: crus sinistrum fasciculi atrioventricularis
object_id: rami subendocardiales sinistri
latin: rami subendocardiales sinistri
en: Left subendocardial branches of Purkinje
cell_type: 0
master_object: Conducting system of the heart
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>spread from the apex of the heart in the subendocardial layer to all the cardiac muscle cells of the ventricles

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.2
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Parts of conducting system
parent: fasciculus atrioventricularis
object_id: crus dextrum fasciculi atrioventricularis
latin: crus dextrum fasciculi atrioventricularis
en: Right bundles of Tawara
cell_type: 0
master_object: Conducting system of the heart
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>run through the interventricular septum to the heart apex where they divides into the subendocardial branches, the right bundle runs through the septomarginal trabecula of the right ventricle

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Autonomic innervation of the heart
parent: Autonomic innervation of the heart
memorix_page: 273
latin: rami cardiaci
en: Parasympathetic system – cardiac branches
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>fibres from the right vagus nerve primarily enter the SA node</indent>
  - <indent=3em>fibres from the left vagus nerve primarily enter the AV node</indent>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Conducting system of the heart
sub_group: Autonomic innervation of the heart
parent: Autonomic innervation of the heart
memorix_page: 273
en: Cardiac plexus*4
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  Is a mixed sympathetic and parasympathetic plexus divided into two parts:
  - <indent=3em>the superficial cardiac plexus is located between the aorta and the pulmonary trunk</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the deep cardiac plexus is located between the aorta and the tracheal bifurcation</indent>


system: nervous
main_group: Cervical plexus
latin: plexus cervicalis (C1–C4)
en: Cervical plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The cervical plexus</b> consists of spinal nerves<b> C1 to C4</b> and is located in the lateral cervical region. It produces both sensory and motor nerves. The sensory nerves reach the skin through <b>the nerve point</b> (punctum nervosum), a gap in the superficial cervical fascia located approximately half-way along the posterior margin of the sternocleidomastoid. <b>The motor nerves</b> innervate the <b>anterior group</b> of cervical muscles. <b>The phrenic nerve</b> passes through the mediastinum and innervates the diaphragm.

general_description:
  <b>The hypoglossal nerve</b> joins and travels with the superior root of the deep ansa cervicalis (radix superior ansae cervicalis profundae). However, it does not participate in the motor innervation of the infrahyoid muscles.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Surgical procedures</b> in the area of the carotid bifurcation require very careful precision not to injury the motor branches of the cervical plexus.

  <b>Transverse lesions </b>of the spinal cord above C4 often lead to respiratory arrest. This is common in vertebral column trauma.

  <b>Surgical procedures</b> in the area of the carotid bifurcation require very careful precision not to injury the motor branches of the cervical plexus.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Somatosensory branches
parent: Somatosensory branches
object_id: nervus occipitalis minor
latin: nervus occipitalis minor C2-C3
en: Lesser occipital nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a somatosensory nerve, which travels along the posterior margin of the sternocleidomastoid in a cranial direction
  - innervates the lateral part of the nape region

related_objects:
  os occipitale,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,os temporale 1,os temporale 2,


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.1
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Somatosensory branches
parent: nervus auricularis magnus C2-C3
object_id: ramus anterior nervi auricularis magni
latin: ramus anterior nervi auricularis magni
en: Anterior branch of great auricular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates the skin over the anterior part of the auricle of the inferior part in the parotideomasseteric region

related_objects:
  os occipitale,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,os temporale 1,os temporale 2,


system: nervous
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Somatosensory branches
parent: ramus superior nervi transversi collii
latin: ansa cervicalis superficialis
en: Superficial ansa cervicalis
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a loop forming a connection with the cervical branch of the facial nerve (ramus colli nervi facialis), which carries motor fibres for the platysma


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Somatosensory branches
parent: Somatosensory branches
object_id: nervi supraclaviculares
latin: nervi supraclaviculares C3-C4
en: Supraclavicular nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - three groups of sensory nerves
  - pass superficially over the clavicle giving off branches in a caudal direction

related_objects:
  os occipitale,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,axis c2,atlas c1,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,os temporale 1,os temporale 2,clavicula,scapula


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Somatosensory branches
parent: Somatosensory branches
latin: punctum nervosum
en: Nerve point
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the point where the sensory cervical nerves pass through the superficial layer of the cervical fascia, emerging dorsally to the sternocleidomastoid muscle


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Cervical plexus and branches
parent: Cervical plexus and branches
latin: rami musculares C1-C4
en: Muscular branches
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervate the rectus capitis lateralis, rectus capitis anterior, longus capitis, longus colli muscles, scalenus anterior and scalenus medius


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.1
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Cervical plexus and branches
parent: ansa cervicalis profunda
object_id: radix superior ansae cervicalis
latin: radix superior ansa cervicalis C1-C2
en: Superior root of ansa cevicalis
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - travels with the hypoglossal nerve, but does not exchange of fibres
  - leaves the hypoglossal nerve as it passes the internal carotid artery
  - then descends to join the inferior root

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 229 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Mixed branch of cervical plexus
parent: Mixed branch of cervical plexus
object_id: nervus phrenicus 1,nervus phrenicus 2
latin: nervus phrenicus C3-C5*2
en: Phrenic nerve*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - from C4, with accessory fibres from C3 and C5
  - descends bilaterally on the surface of the anterior scalenus muscle and travels through the superior thoracic aperture to reach the thoracic cavity<br>
  <b>Right phrenic nerve (nervus phrenicus dexter)</b>
  - passes between the right subclavian artery and vein
  - descends on the right side from the right brachiocephalic vein and right superior vena cava
  - runs on the surface of the pericardium and enters the diaphragm near the caval opening<br>
  <b>Left phrenic nerve (nervus phrenicus sinister)</b>
  - passes between the left subclavian artery and vein
  - descends behind the left brachiocephalic vein ventrally to the aortic arch and pulmonary hilum 
  - runs on the surface of the pericardium and enters the diaphragm at or venral to the central tendon

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>The phrenic nerve</b> must not be harmed when opening the pericardium during heart surgery. 

  <b>Phrenic nerve irritation</b> results in twitches of the diaphragm causing hiccups (singultus). 

  <b>Unilateral damage</b> to the phrenic nerve leads to ipsilateral paresis of the diaphragm and unilateral respiratory impairment.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.4
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Mixed branch of cervical plexus
parent: Mixed branch of cervical plexus
object_id: rami phrenicoabdominales nervi phrenicis 1,rami phrenicoabdominales nervi phrenicis 2
latin: rami phrenicoabdominales nervi phrenicis
en: Phrenicoabdominal branches
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - provide somatosensory innervation of the parietal peritoneum under the diaphragm (down to the gallbladder and pancreas)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4.1.1
main_group: Cervical plexus
sub_group: Spinal nerves of cervical plexus
parent: C1 spinal nerves
object_id: ramus anterior nervi cervicalis primi
latin: ramus anterior nervi cervicalis primi
en: Anterior ramus of 1st cervical nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c4,os occipitale


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
memorix_page: 282
latin: Plexus brachialis (C4–T1)
en: Brachial plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The initial part of the brachial plexus consists of the anterior branches of spinal nerves <b>C5 - C8 </b>and connections from <b>spinal segments C4 and T1</b>. These roots converge to form <b>three parallel trunks: the superior </b>(C4 - C6), <b>middle </b>(C7), <b>and inferior </b>(C8 - T1) <b>trunks</b>. The trunks pass through the <b>scalene fissure </b>into the omoclavicular triangle and then divide to form the cords. The clavicle divides the plexus topographically into a <b>supraclavicular and infraclavicular part</b>.

general_description:
  <b>The trunks of the brachial plexus divide to form the cords. </b>Three posterior divisions form the posterior cord, two anterior divisions form the lateral cord and one anterior division forms the medial cord.<br>
  <b>The cords </b>of the brachial plexus are named according to their position to the axillary artery.<br>
  <b>Erb` point </b>(<i>punctum supraclaviculare</i>) is located 2 - 3 cm above a point between the middle and lateral thirds of the clavicle, anterior to the transverse projection of vertebra C6 and lateral to the sternocleidomastoid. Hypersensitivity in this area indicates damage to the brachial plexus.<br>
  <b>The nerves </b>innervating the muscles of the anterior side of the arm, forearm and hand originate from the anterior branches of the brachial plexus (from the medial and lateral cords). The posterior groups of the arm and forearm are innervated by the radial nerve, which is a branch of the posterior cord. <br>
  <b>The most commonly assessed reflexes of nerves originating in the brachial plexus are</b>:  
  -  the bicipital reflex (C5)  
  -  the brachioradial reflex (C5 - C6) 
  -  the tricipital reflex (C7)  
  -  the finger flexors (C8)


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Anterior branches of spinal nerves
parent: C5 spinal nerves
object_id: ramus anterior nervi cervicalis quinti
latin: ramus anterior nervi cervicalis quinti
en: Anterior ramus of 5th cervical nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,os costale 3,costa prima 1,costa secunda 2,clavicula,scapula


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Supraclavicular part
parent: Plexus brachialis (C4–T1)
latin: Plexus brachialis pars supraclavicularis
en: Supraclavicular part
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The <b>supraclavicular part of the brachial plexus </b>(<i>pars supraclavicularis plexus brachialis</i>) gives off nerves in the omoclavicular triangle, which innervate the <b>spinohumeral, thoracohumeral and scapular muscles</b>. Somatic Motor fibers predominate in these nerves.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.1
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Supraclavicular part
parent: Plexus brachialis pars supraclavicularis
object_id: nervus dorsalis scapulae
latin: nervus dorsalis scapulae C5
en: Dorsal scapular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>penetrates the scalenus medius and follows the deep branch of the transverse cervical artery</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the levator scapulae and rhomboid major and minor</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 269 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Supraclavicular part
parent: Plexus brachialis pars supraclavicularis
object_id: nervus suprascapularis
latin: nervus suprascapularis C4-C5
en: Suprascapular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>follows the suprascapular artery and veins towards the suprascapular notch</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes underneath the superior transverse scapular ligament to reach the supraspinous fossa</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes through the spinoglenoid notch to reach the infraspinous fossa</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the supraspinatus and infraspinatus, and provides sensory innervation for part of the capsule of the shoulder joint</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 269 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.4
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Supraclavicular part
parent: Plexus brachialis pars supraclavicularis
object_id: nervus thoracicus longus
latin: nervus thoracicus longus C6-C7
en: Long thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>provides motor innervation for the serratus anterior</indent>
  - <indent=3em>travels with the lateral thoracic artery and vein on the lateral side of the thorax</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 269 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Paresis of the long thoracic nerve </b>impairs the function of the serratus anterior. The scapula no longer adheres strongly to the thorax and so protrudes from the patient` back as what is called a winged scapula (<i>scapula alata</i>). Abduction of the arm above the horizontal plane is also impaired.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.5
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Supraclavicular part
parent: Plexus brachialis pars supraclavicularis
object_id: nervus thoracodorsalis
latin: nervus thoracodorsalis C6-C8
en: Thoracodorsal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>innervates the latissimus dorsi</indent>
  - <indent=3em>travels with the thoracodorsal vessels on the lateral side of the scapula and the latissimus dorsi</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 269 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.7.2
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Supraclavicular part
parent: nervi pectorales C5-T1
object_id: nervus pectoralis medialis
latin: nervus pectoralis medialis
en: Medial pectoral nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>emerges from the clavipectoral triangle</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the pectoralis major and minor</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 269 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: Plexus brachialis (C4–T1)
latin: plexus brachialis pars infraclavicularis
en: Infraclavicular part
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The nerves of the <b>infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus </b>(<i>pars infraclavicular plexus brachialis</i>) emerge from <b>the cords</b>. The cords are located around the <b>axillary artery </b>and give both mixed and purely sensory branches, which innervate the entire upper extremity. The cords eventually split into <b>7 terminal branches</b>. The <b>axillary nerve </b>and the <b>radial nerve </b>arises from the posterior cord, the <b>musculocutaneous nerve </b>from the lateral cord, and the <b>ulnar nerve </b>from the medial cord. The medial and lateral cords give off the medial and lateral roots of the median nerve, which fuse to form the median nerve.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6.1.2
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: fasciculus medialis plexus braxialis*2
object_id: nervus cutaneus antebrachii medialis
latin: nervus cutaneus antebrachii medialis C8-T1
en: Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>sensory innervation of the medial part of the forearm</indent>
  - <indent=3em>follows the basilic vein through the hiatus basilicus</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 277 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6.1.3
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: fasciculus medialis plexus braxialis*2
object_id: nervus ulnaris
latin: nervus ulnaris (C7-T1)
en: Ulnar nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b>
  <b>1.</b> travels with the superior collateral ulnar artery and veins in the medial brachial intermuscular septum
  <b>2.</b> passes through the groove for the ulnar nerve behind the medial epicondyle of the humerus, here it is covered by fascia and skin only
  <b>3.</b> passes through the cubital canal between the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris
  <b>4.</b> runs between and innervates the flexor carpi ulnaris and the flexor digitorum profundus
  <b>5.</b> enters the palm via the ulnar canal

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 686 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The ulnar nerve </b>is particularly vulnerable as it travels behind the medial epicondyle. This point is colloquially known as the “funny bone”.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The ulnar nerve </b>is most commonly harmed in narrow anatomical spaces such as the cubital and ulnar canals. Fractures of the elbow and forearm often damage both the ulnar and median nerves. Injury to the ulnar nerve results in an impairment in motor function giving rise to the clinical appearance of a “claw hand”.


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: nervus ulnaris (C7-T1)
latin: rami musculares nervus ulnaris
en: Muscular branches of ulnar nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>provide motor innervation for the flexor carpi ulnaris and the part of the flexor digitorum profundus that acts on the 4th and 5th fingers


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: ramus dorsalis nervi ulnaris
object_id: nervi digitales dorsales nervi ulnaris
latin: nervi digitales dorsales nervi ulnaris
en: Dorsal digital nerves of ulnar nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: ramus dorsalis nervi ulnaris
object_id: nervi digitales dorsales communes et proprii
latin: nervi digitales dorsales communes et proprii
en: Common and proper digital dorsal nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>provide sensory innervation of the 4th and 5th fingers and the ulnar side of the 3rd finger

related_objects:
  phalanx proximalis pollicis 1,phalanx distalis pollicis 1,os triquetrum,os trapezoideum,os trapezium,os scaphoideum,os capitatum,os proximalis manus 2,os pisiforme,os metacarpale pollicis 1,os metacarpale 5,os metacarpale 4,os metacarpale 3,os metacarpale 2,os lunatum,os hamatum,os proximalis manus 3,phalanx media manus 5,phalanx media manus 4,phalanx media manus 3,phalanx media manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5,phalanx distalis manus 4,phalanx distalis manus 3,phalanx distalis manus 2,os proximalis manus 5,os proximalis manus 4


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: nervus ulnaris (C7-T1)
object_id: ramus profundus nervi ulnaris
latin: ramus profundus nervi ulnaris
en: Deep branch of ulnar nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>innervates all hypothenar muscles, palmar and dorsal interossei, lumbricals III and IV, adductor pollicis and deep head of the flexor pollicis brevis

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 533 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6.2.2
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: fasciculus lateralis plexus braxialis*2
object_id: nervus musculocutaneus
latin: nervus musculocutaneus
en: Musculocutaneous nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b><br>
  <b>1.</b> penetrates the coracobrachialis
  <b>2.</b> passes between the biceps brachii and the brachialis
  <b>3.</b>  its terminal branch runs on the lateral aspect of the forearm

general_description:
  <b>The musculocutaneous nerve </b>is the only nerve of the arm that penetrates a muscle (the coracobrachialis).


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6.2.3
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: fasciculus lateralis plexus braxialis*2
object_id: nervus medianus
latin: nervus medianus*2
en: Median nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b><br>
  <b>1.</b> follows the brachial artery and veins within the medial brachial intermuscular septum (septum intermusculare brachii mediale)
  <b>2.</b> enters the cubital fossa (fossa cubitalis)
  <b>3.</b> runs within the pronator canal (canalis pronatorius) between the two heads of the pronator teres and then passes between the two heads of the flexor digitorum superficialis
  <b>4.</b> runs between the flexor digitorum superficialis and profundus in the forearm
  <b>5</b>. runs more superficially in the distal part of the forearm, between the palmaris longus and the flexor carpi radialis
  <b>6.</b> enters the palm through the carpal tunnel (canalis carpi)<br>
  - <indent=3em>arises from the lateral and medial roots

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 686 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>The median nerve </b>is most commonly damaged in the carpal tunnel, which results in carpal tunnel syndrome. Shoulder dislocation and stab and bullet wounds can damage the nerves in the axilla. Colles` fracture and slash wounds on the wrist may damage the nerve in the forearm. Damage to the median nerve results in impaired pronation of the forearm (pronator teres and quadratus), impaired opposition and flexion of the thumb (opponens pollicis and the deep head of the flexor pollicis brevis) and impaired flexion of the second and third finger. Flexion of the fourth and fifth finger is preserved, due to the part of the flexor digitorum profundus innervated by the ulnar nerve. The clinical sign is called the “benedict hand (preacher` hand)”.


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: nervus medianus*2
latin: rami musculares nervi mediani
en: Muscular branches of medial nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  Motor innervation for almost all of the anterior antebrachial muscles:<br>
  1. flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, pronator teres,
  2. flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor pollicis longus,
  3. flexor digitorum profundus (for the 2nd and 3rd finger), pronator quadratus


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: nervus medianus*2
object_id: nervi digitales palmares communes
latin: nervi digitales palmares communes*2
en: Common palmar digital nerves*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>I, II and III</indent>
  - <indent=3em>motor branches for the muscles of the thenar eminence: abductor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis and the superficial head of the flexor pollicis brevis,</indent>
  - <indent=3em>motor branches for the 1st and 2nd lumbricals</indent>
  - <indent=3em>split into the proper palmar digital nerves (nervi digitales palmares proprii) which innervate the skin of digits 1-3 and the radial side of the 4th digit and reach the distal phalanges on both the palmar and the dorsal sides</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 533 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: fasciculus posterior plexus braxialis*2
object_id: nervus axillaris
latin: nervus axillaris C5-C6
en: Axillary nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b><br>
  - <indent=3em>passes with the posterior circumflex humeral artery and veins through the humerotricipital foramen to the posterior part of the surgical neck of the humerus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 277 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Axillary nerve palsy </b>can occur due to a fracture of the surgical neck of the humerus. It manifests as impaired abduction of the arm and predisposes to subluxations of the shoulder due to instability of the head of the humerus.


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: fasciculus posterior plexus braxialis*2
object_id: nervus radialis
latin: nervus radialis (C5-T1)
en: Radial nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b><br>
  <b>1.</b> spirals down the radial canal (a space bound by the groove for the radial nerve and the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii on the posterior surface of the humerus) with the deep brachial artery and veins
  <b>2. </b>perforates the lateral intermuscular septum to enter the anterior compartment of the arm, where it travels between brachialis and the brachioradialis
  <b>3. runs through the cubital fossa, where it divides into the superficial and deep branches
  <b>4. </b>the deep branch enters the dorsal forearm through the supinator canal (a space between two heads of the supinator)
  <b>5. </b>the superficial branch runs with the radial artery and veins to the radial fossa, where it divides into somatosensory branches for the dorsum of the hand

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 289 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Radial nerve injuries </b>are fairly common. They are usually caused by fractures of the distal part of the humerus affecting the groove for the radial nerve (Holstein-Lewis fractures). Fractures of the forearm may also affect the radial nerve. Radial nerve injuries manifest as an absent the tricipital reflex and weakness in elbow extension. Another prominent sign of radial nerve palsy is an inability to extend the wrist causing a condition called wrist drop


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: nervus radialis (C5-T1)
object_id: nervus cutaneus brachii lateralis inferior
latin: nervus cutaneus brachii lateralis inferior
en: Inferior lateral cutaneous nerve of arm
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>sensory innervation of the distal part of the deltoid region and lateral part of the arm

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 277 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: nervus radialis (C5-T1)
object_id: ramus superficialis nervus radialis
latin: ramus superficialis nervus radialis
en: Superficial branch of radial nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>branches from the radial nerve in the cubital fossa and travels with the radial vessels

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 545 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: ramus superficialis nervus radialis
object_id: nervi digitales dorsales nervi radialis
latin: nervi digitales dorsales nervi radialis
en: Dorsal digital nerves of radial nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>sensory innervation of the thumb and forefinger and the radial side of the 3rd finger (proximal and middle phalanges only)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 545 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: nervus radialis (C5-T1)
object_id: ramus profundus nervi radialis
latin: ramus profundus nervi radialis
en: Deep branch of radial nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs through the supinator canal to get to the posterior compartment of the forearm, where it passes between the deep and superficial layers, giving off muscular branches

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 545 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Brachial plexus
sub_group: Infraclavicular part
parent: ramus profundus nervi radialis
object_id: nervus interosseus antebrachii posterior
latin: nervus interosseus antebrachii posterior
en: Posterior interosseous nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs on the posterior side of the interosseous membrane of the forearm with the posterior interosseous vessels</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the periosteum of both the radius and ulna, the interosseous membrane and both radio-ulnar joints</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 545 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Selective surgical transection </b>of the sensory branches of the posterior interosseous nerve of the forearm can relieve otherwise uncontrollable pain of the wrist (such that may occur in osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis).


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
latin: Nervi thoracici (T1 - T12)
en: Thoracic nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The intercostal nerves</b> are the<b> anterior branches of the thoracic nerves</b>. They retain <b>segmental organisation</b> and do not form plexuses. They run dorsally on the inner surface of the external intercostal muscles towards the costal angle. They follow the ribs ventrally between the internal and innermost intercostal muscles. Each intercostal space contains a neurovascular bundle consisting of an intercostal vein, artery and nerve. The nerve is the most inferior structure of the <b>neurovascular bundle</b>. The subcostal nerve is the anterior branch of the <b>last thoracic nerve (T12)</b> and runs inferiorly to the last rib.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T1 thoracic nerves
parent: Nervi thoracici (T1 - T12)
en: T1 thoracic nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - innervates the external, internal and innermost intercostal muscles, subcostales, transversus thoracis, rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis, quadratus lumborum and pyramidalis


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T1 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici primi
latin: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici primi*2
en: Spinal ganglion of first thoracic nerve*2
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 4


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: nervus thoracicus secundus
latin: nervus thoracicus secundus
en: Second thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 2


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus anterior nervi thoracici secundi
latin: ramus anterior nervi thoracici secundi
en: Anterior ramus of second thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 3


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix anterior nervi thoracici secundi
latin: radix anterior nervi thoracici secundi
en: Anterior rooth of second thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 5


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix posterior nervi thoracici secundi
latin: radix posterior nervi thoracici secundi
en: Posterior rooth of second thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 6


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici secundi
latin: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici secundi
en: Collateral branch of anterior ramus of second thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 7


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the medial part of the mammary and inframammary region and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici secundi
latin: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici secundi
en: Anterior cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of second thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 8


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the lateral part of the mammary and inframammary regions and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici secundi
latin: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici secundi
en: Lateral cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of second thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 9


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus posterior nervi thoracici secundi
latin: ramus posterior nervi thoracici secundi
en: Posterior ramus of second thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 10


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici secundi
latin: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici secundi
en: Lateral branch of posterior ramus of second thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 11


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T2 thoracic nerves
parent: T2 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici secundi
latin: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici secundi
en: Medial branch of posterior ramus of second thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,costa secunda 12


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: nervus thoracicus tertius
latin: nervus thoracicus tertius
en: Third thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 4


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus anterior nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ramus anterior nervi thoracici tertii
en: Anterior ramus of third thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 5


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici tertii
en: Spinal ganglion of third thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 6


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix anterior nervi thoracici tertii
latin: radix anterior nervi thoracici tertii
en: Anterior rooth of third thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 7


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix posterior nervi thoracici tertii
latin: radix posterior nervi thoracici tertii
en: Posterior rooth of third thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 8


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici tertii
en: Collateral branch of anterior ramus of third thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 9


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the medial part of the mammary and inframammary region and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici tertii
en: Anterior cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of third thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 10


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the lateral part of the mammary and inframammary regions and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici tertii
en: Lateral cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of third thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 11


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus posterior nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ramus posterior nervi thoracici tertii
en: Posterior ramus of third thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 12


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici tertii
en: Lateral branch of posterior ramus of third thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 13


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T3 thoracic nerves
parent: T3 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici tertii
latin: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici tertii
en: Medial branch of posterior ramus of third thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 3,os costale 14


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T4 thoracic nerves
parent: T4 thoracic nerves
object_id: nervus thoracicus quartius
latin: nervus thoracicus quartius
en: Fourth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 5,os costale 4


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T4 thoracic nerves
parent: T4 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus anterior nervi thoracici quarti
latin: ramus anterior nervi thoracici quarti
en: Anterior ramus of fourth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 5,os costale 5


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T4 thoracic nerves
parent: T4 thoracic nerves
object_id: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici quarti
latin: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici quarti
en: Spinal ganglion of fourth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 5,os costale 6


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T4 thoracic nerves
parent: T4 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix anterior nervi thoracici quarti
latin: radix anterior nervi thoracici quarti
en: Anterior rooth of fourth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 5,os costale 7


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T4 thoracic nerves
parent: T4 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix posterior nervi thoracici quarti
latin: radix posterior nervi thoracici quarti
en: Posterior rooth of fourth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 5,os costale 8


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T4 thoracic nerves
parent: T4 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici quarti
latin: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici quarti
en: Collateral branch of anterior ramus of fourth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,os costale 5,os costale 9


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T4 thoracic nerves
parent: T4 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the medial part of the mammary and inframammary region and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici quarti
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T9 thoracic nerves
parent: T9 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the medial part of the mammary and inframammary region and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici noni
latin: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici noni
en: Anterior cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of ninth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T9 thoracic nerves
parent: T9 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the lateral part of the mammary and inframammary regions and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici noni
latin: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici noni
en: Lateral cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of ninth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T9 thoracic nerves
parent: T9 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus posterior nervi thoracici noni
latin: ramus posterior nervi thoracici noni
en: Posterior ramus of ninth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae spuriae 17


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T9 thoracic nerves
parent: T9 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici noni
latin: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici noni
en: Lateral branch of posterior ramus of ninth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae spuriae 18


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T9 thoracic nerves
parent: T9 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici noni
latin: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici noni
en: Medial branch of posterior ramus of ninth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: nervus thoracicus decimus
latin: nervus thoracicus decimus
en: Tenth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus anterior nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ramus anterior nervi thoracici decimi
en: Anterior ramus of tenth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici decimi
en: Spinal ganglion of tenth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix anterior nervi thoracici decimi
latin: radix anterior nervi thoracici decimi
en: Anterior rooth of tenth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix posterior nervi thoracici decimi
latin: radix posterior nervi thoracici decimi
en: Posterior rooth of tenth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 15


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici decimi
en: Collateral branch of anterior ramus of tenth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 16


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the medial part of the mammary and inframammary region and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici decimi
en: Anterior cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of tenth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 17


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the lateral part of the mammary and inframammary regions and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici decimi
en: Lateral cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of tenth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus posterior nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ramus posterior nervi thoracici decimi
en: Posterior ramus of tenth thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 19


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici decimi
en: Lateral branch of posterior ramus of tenth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 20


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T10 thoracic nerves
parent: T10 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici decimi
latin: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici decimi
en: Medial branch of posterior ramus of tenth thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae spuriae 10,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 21


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: nervus thoracicus undecimus
latin: nervus thoracicus undecimus
en: Eleventh thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
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system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus anterior nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ramus anterior nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Anterior ramus of eleventh thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 13


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ganglion spinale nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Spinal ganglion of eleventh thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 14


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix anterior nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: radix anterior nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Anterior rooth of eleventh thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 15


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: radix posterior nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: radix posterior nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Posterior rooth of eleventh thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 16


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ramus collateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Collateral branch of anterior ramus of eleventh thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 17


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the medial part of the mammary and inframammary region and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Anterior cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of eleventh thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 18


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
en_description: - somatosensory innervation of the lateral part of the mammary and inframammary regions and abdomen
object_id: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Lateral cutaneous branch of anterior ramus of eleventh thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 19


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus posterior nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ramus posterior nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Posterior ramus of eleventh thoracic nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 20


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ramus lateralis rami posterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Lateral branch of posterior ramus of eleventh thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 21


system: nervous
main_group: Thoracic nerves
sub_group: T11 thoracic nerves
parent: T11 thoracic nerves
object_id: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
latin: ramus medialis rami posterioris nervi thoracici undecimi
en: Medial branch of posterior ramus of eleventh thoracici nerve
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 11,costae arcuraiae fluctuantes 22


system: nervous
main_group: Lumbar plexus
latin: Plexus lumbalis (T12–L4)
en: Lumbar plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The <b>lumbar plexus</b> is formed from the anterior branches of <b>spinal nerves L1 - L4</b> and a contributing branch from <b>T12</b>. The plexus is located within the<b> psoas major</b>, lateral to the lumbar vertebrae.


system: nervous
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus spinal nerves
parent: Plexus lumbalis (T12–L4)
en: Lumbar plexus spinal nerves
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  <b>The spinal nerve</b> is formed from an anterior and a posterior spinal root, which fuse and leave the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen. <b>The anterior root</b> consists of<b> efferent (motor) fibres</b> and <b>the posterior root</b> consists of <b>afferent (sensory) fibres.</b> The posterior root contains <b>the spinal ganglion (ganglion spinale),</b> containing the cell bodies of the afferent nerves entering the spinal cord. Outside the vertebral canal, the spinal nerve divides into <b>a posterior branch</b> (ramus posterior) and an <b>anterior branch</b> (ramus anterior). These branches contain<b> both afferent and efferent fibres.</b>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: Lumbar plexus branches
object_id: nervus iliohypogastricus
latin: nervus iliohypogastricus T12–L1
en: Iliohypogastric nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>emerges laterally from the psoas major</indent>
  - <indent=3em>passes between the internal oblique and the transversus abdominis</indent>
  - <indent=3em>runs above the iliac crest travelling ventrocaudally</indent>
  - <indent=3em>terminates in the hypogastric and inguinal regions</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: Lumbar plexus branches
object_id: nervus ilioinguinalis,nervus ilioinguinalis f
latin: nervus ilioinguinalis L1
en: Ilioinguinal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>emerges laterally from the psoas major and continues below the iliohypogastric nerve</indent>
  - <indent=3em>travels through the inguinal canal (canalis inguinalis)</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the skin of the anterior part of the scrotum (in men) and the skin on the anterior part of the labia majora (in women)</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: nervus genitofemoralis L1-L2
object_id: ramus genitalis nervi genitofemoralis
latin: ramus genitalis nervi genitofemoralis
en: Genital branch of genitofemoral nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>passes through the inguinal canal</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the cremaster, dartos fascia and a small area on the medial side of the thigh (in men)</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates part of the labia majora and a small area on the medial side of the thigh (in women)</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: Lumbar plexus branches
object_id: nervus cutaneus femoris lateralis
latin: nervus cutaneus femoris lateralis L2–L3
en: Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>emerges laterally from the psoas major</indent>
  - <indent=3em>runs laterocaudally on the iliacus towards the anterior superior iliac spine</indent>
  - <indent=3em>travels through the muscular space beneath the lateral attachment of the inguinal ligament to reach the lateral thigh</indent>
  - <indent=3em>provides somatosensory innervation for the lateral thigh</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 149 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Meralgia paresthetica</b> results from compression of the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh in the muscular space. Its symptomatology consists of acute intermittent pain and loss of sensation on the lateral thigh above the knee. It is common in obese and diabetic patients.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: Lumbar plexus branches
object_id: nervus femoralis
latin: nervus femoralis L2–L4
en: Femoral nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b><br> 
  Emerges laterally from the psoas major, travels above the iliopsoas, passes medially through the muscular space to reach the anterior thigh and femoral triangle, then splits into muscular and cutaneous branches

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 149 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Pelvic fractures, hip dislocations, surgeries and incorrectly applied intramuscular injections</b> can harm the femoral nerve. Induration of the inguinal lymphatic nodes and aneurysms of the femoral artery are the most common non-traumatic causes of femoral nerve injury. The motor symptoms of femoral nerve injury occur as are a result of impaired function of the quadriceps femoris. Walking without support and walking upstairs become difficult. It is impossible for the patient to raise his/her lower limb when lying supine. Standing and squatting become unstable. In certain cases, hyperextension of the knee (genu recurvatum, back knee) may occur when standing.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: nervus femoralis L2–L4
object_id: nervus saphenus
latin: nervus saphenus
en: Saphenous nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum,corpus fibula, tibia
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>the terminal somatosensory branch, which follows the great saphenous vein distally on the leg</indent>
  - <indent=3em>runs in the adductor canal and leaves it ventrally through the vasto adductor lamina</indent>
  - <indent=3em>is accompanied by the descending genicular artery under the skin of the knee</indent>
  - <indent=3em>travels with the great saphenous vein under the skin of the leg</indent>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6.2
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: nervus obturatorius L2–L4
object_id: ramus anterior nervi obturatorii
latin: ramus anterior nervi obturatorii
en: Anterior branch of obturator nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>innervates the gracilis, adductor longus, adductor brevis, pectineus (a diploneural muscle also innervated by the femoral nerve) and provides somatosensory innervation for the medial thigh


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6.3
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: nervus obturatorius L2–L4
object_id: ramus posterior nervi obturatorii
latin: ramus posterior nervi obturatorii
en: Posterior branch of obturator nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>innervates the adductor magnus (a diploneural muscle, also innervated by the sciatic nerve)


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6.4
main_group: Lumbar plexus
sub_group: Lumbar plexus branches
parent: nervus obturatorius L2–L4
object_id: rami cutanei nervi obturatorii
latin: rami cutanei nervi obturatorii
en: Cutaneous branches of obturator nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>the cutaneous branch of the obturator nerve supplies the skin of the middle part of the medial thigh.


system: nervous
main_group: Sacral plexus
latin: plexus sacralis (L4–S4)
en: Sacral plexus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The <b>sacral plexus</b> arises from the spinal nerves of <b>S1 to S4</b> and receives contributing branches from <b>L4 and L5</b> via the lumbosacral trunk (truncus lumbosacralis). It is located on the <b>pelvic surface of the sacral bone</b>. Along with the lumbar plexus it provides somatomotor and somatosensory innervation for the lower limb.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus gluteus superior
latin: nervus gluteus superior L4–S1
en: Superior gluteal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs through the suprapiriform foramen with superior gluteal artery and veins</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the gluteus medius, gluteus minimus and tensor fasciae latae</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Disorders of the superior gluteal nerve</b> lead to an impairment in abduction of the hip joint. Walking and standing on one foot become difficult and patients develop a duck-like gait. The Trendelenburg sign is positive. It is demonstrated by asking the patient to stand on the affected leg; the unsupported side of the pelvis will drop lower than the side the patient is standing on.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus gluteus inferior
latin: nervus gluteus inferior L5–S2
en: Inferior gluteal nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs through the infrapiriform foramen with the inferior gluteal artery and veins</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the gluteus maximus</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 138 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Paresis of the inferior gluteal nerve</b> results in impaired function of the gluteus maximus, limiting extension of the hip joint. This causes difficulties in walking upstairs.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus cutaneus femoris posterior
latin: nervus cutaneus femoris posterior S1–S3
en: Posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs through the infrapiriform foramen and passes over the inferior border of the gluteus maximus</indent>
  - <indent=3em>provides somatosensory innervation to the dorsal thigh,</indent>
  - <indent=3em>distally travels with the cranial extension of the small saphenous vein</indent>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus pudendus,nervus pudendus f
latin: nervus pudendus S2–S4
en: Pudendal nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b><br>
  runs through the infrapiriform foramen with the internal pudendal artery and veins, turns around the ischial spine into the lesser sciatic foramen, enters the ischioanal fossa and passes inside the pudendal canal to reach the external genital organs


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4.2
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus pudendus S2–S4
object_id: nervi rectales inferiores
latin: nervi rectales inferiores
en: Inferior rectal branches
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>innervate the external anal sphincter and provide somatosensory innervation to the skin around the intergluteal crest


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 4.3.1
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervi perineales
object_id: rami musculares nervi perinealis,rami musculares nervi perinealis f
latin: rami musculares nervi perinealis
en: Muscular branches of perineal nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>motor branches for the transversus perinei superficialis, transversus perinei profundus, bulbospongiosus and ischiocavernosus


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus ischiadicus
latin: nervus ischiadicus L5–S2
en: Sciatic nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>COURSE</b><br>
   passes through the infrapiriform foramen between the muscles of the posterior thigh then descends distally towards the popliteal fossa<br>
  <b>Branches and structures innervated </b>- splits into two main branches (usually in the distal third of the thigh): the tibial nerve and the common fibular nerve

general_description:
  <b>The sciatic nerve</b> is the longest and thickest nerve in the human body. At its thickest point, it may be thicker than the spinal cord

clinical_notes:
  <b>Pelvic fractures, hip dislocations and incorrectly applied injections can harm the sciatic nerve.</b> Mild forms of sciatic nerve injury hinder the function of the extensors of the thigh and the flexors of the leg.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.1
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus ischiadicus L5–S2
object_id: rami musculares nervi ischiadisi
latin: rami musculares nervi ischiadis
en: Muscular branches of sciatic nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>innervates the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus and part of the adductor magnus


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus ischiadicus L5–S2
en_description: - <indent=3em>partial somatosensory innervation of the hip joint
object_id: nervus fibularis communis
latin: nervus fibularis communis
en: Common fibular nerve
related_objects: os femoris,corpus fibula, tibia
general_description: <b>The peroneal nerve</b> (nervus peroneus) is a synonym for the fibular nerve
cell_type: 0
clinical_notes:
  <b>The fibular nerve</b> is covered only by skin where it lies near the head of the fibula. In this location the nerve is most vulnerable to trauma and compression from incorrectly applied casts. Dislocations and sprains of the knee may also harm this nerve. The anterior muscles of the leg become impaired, resulting in a &ldquo;flapping foot&rdquo; and an inability to stand on the heels. The arches of the foot gradually deteriorate due to dysfunction of the fibularis longus.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2.1
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus fibularis communis
latin: rami articulares nervi fibularis communis
en: Articular branches of common fibular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs medially to the tendon of the biceps femoris and passes through the popliteal fossa into the fibular canal between the fibularis longus and the soleus behind the head of the fibula


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2.3
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus fibularis communis
object_id: nervus fibularis superficialis
latin: nervus fibularis superficialis
en: Superficial fibular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>provides somatosensory innervation to the lateral calf</indent>
  - <indent=3em>the sural communicating branch (ramus communicans fibularis) emerges from it and joins the medial sural cutaneous nerve; together they form the sural nerve (nervus suralis)</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus fibularis superficialis
object_id: nervus cutaneus dorsalis medialis
latin: nervus cutaneus dorsalis medialis
en: Medial dorsal cutaneous nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs between the fibula and the fibularis longus</indent>
  - <indent=3em>continues between the fibular muscles, which it innervates (muscular branches),</indent>
  - <indent=3em>penetrates the fascia, reaches the surface and runs superficially over the extensor retinacula</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus fibularis superficialis
object_id: nervus cutaneus dorsalis intermedius
latin: nervus cutaneus dorsalis intermedius
en: Intermedial dorsal cutaneous nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>splits into the dorsal digital nerves of the foot (nn. digitales dorsales pedis) which innervate the medial side of the 1st toe, lateral side of the 2nd toe and medial side of the 3rd toe

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.2.4
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus fibularis communis
object_id: nervus fibularis profundus
latin: nervus fibularis profundus
en: Deep fibular nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>splits into the dorsal digital nerves of the foot which innervate the lateral side of the 3rd toe, the whole of the 4th toe and the medial side of the 5th toe

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus fibularis profundus
object_id: nervus digitalis dorsalis hallucis lateralis
latin: nervus digitalis dorsalis hallucis lateralis
en: Lateral dorsal digital nerve of toe
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs through the fibular canal and anterior intermuscular septum of the leg into a space between the tibialis anterior and extensor hallucis longus</indent>
  - <indent=3em>follows the anterior tibial artery and veins under the extensor retinaculum and emerges on the surface in the 1st interdigital space</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus ischiadicus L5–S2
object_id: nervus tibialis
latin: nervus tibialis
en: Tibial nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>passes through the popliteal fossa with the popliteal artery and vein</indent>
  - <indent=3em>travels with the posterior tibial artery and veins under the tendinous arch of the soleus</indent>
  - <indent=3em>descends between the posterior muscles of the calf</indent>
  - <indent=3em>reaches the sole via the malleolar canal (canalis malleolaris) and then divides into the medial and lateral plantar nerves (n. plantaris medialis et lateralis)</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>The fibular nerve</b> is covered only by skin where it lies near the head of the fibula. In this location the nerve is most vulnerable to trauma and compression from incorrectly applied casts. Dislocations and sprains of the knee may also harm this nerve. The anterior muscles of the leg become impaired, resulting in a "flapping foot"and an inability to stand on the heels. The arches of the foot gradually deteriorate due to dysfunction of the fibularis longus.


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3.1
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus tibialis
object_id: nervus suralis
latin: nervus suralis
en: Sural nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>somatosensory innervation of the calf and lateral side of the heel, follows the small saphenous vein

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus suralis
object_id: nervus cutaneus surae medialis
latin: nervus cutaneus surae medialis
en: Medial sural cutaneous nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>runs with the small saphenous vein under the skin</indent>
  - <indent=3em>joins the sural communicating branch (ramus communicans fibularis) from the lateral sural cutaneous nerve to form the sural nerve</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3.3
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus tibialis
object_id: nervus plantaris medialis
latin: nervus plantaris medialis
en: Medial plantar nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>follows the medial plantar artery and veins</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis and the 1st and 2nd lumbrical</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus plantaris medialis
object_id: nervi digitales plantares communes
latin: nervi digitales plantares communes
en: Common plantar digital nerves
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>split into the proper digital plantar nerves (nervi digitales plantares proprii), which innervate the lateral side of the 1st toe, both sides of the 2nd and 3rd toe and the medial side of the 4th toe

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 5.3.4
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus tibialis
object_id: nervus plantaris lateralis
latin: nervus plantaris lateralis
en: Lateral plantar nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>travels with the lateral plantar artery and veins to the 5th toe and innervates the quadratus plantae

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: nervus plantaris lateralis
object_id: ramus profundus nervi plantaris lateralis
latin: ramus profundus nervi plantaris lateralis
en: Deep branch of lateral plantar nerve
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>travels to the interossei and the oblique head of the adductor hallucis</indent>
  - <indent=3em>innervates the abductor digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi brevis, interossei, adductor hallucis and the lumbricals of the 4th and 5th toes</indent>

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 584 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus cutaneous perforans
latin: nervus cutaneous perforans S2–S4
en: Perforating cutaneous nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises from the sacral plexus</indent>
  - <indent=3em>runs around the inferior border of the gluteus maximus</indent>
  - <indent=3em>supplies the skin covering the medial and lower parts of gluteus maximus</indent>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus musculi piriformis
latin: nervus musculi piriformis S1-S2
en: Piriformis muscle nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>arises from the sacral plexus</indent>
  - <indent=3em>motor innervation of piriformis muscle</indent>


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Sacral plexus
sub_group: Sacral plexus branches
parent: Sacral plexus branches
object_id: nervus musculi levator ani
latin: nervus musculi levator ani S3 -S4
en: Levator ani nerve
related_objects: pelvis,os coccygis,os femoris,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - <indent=3em>motor innervation of iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, puborectalis , levator ani and coccygeus</indent>


system: nervous
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
en: Spinal nerves classification
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  b>There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.</b> After leaving the intervertebral foramen, the spinal nerve divides into<b> two main branches: the posterior branch (ramus posterior) and the anterior branch (ramus anterior).</b> Both branches contain afferent and efferent fibres.<b> The posterior branches</b> retain segmental organisation and provide motor innervation of the epaxial muscles of the back and the sensory innervation of the nape, back and buttocks. <b>The anterior branches</b> form plexuses (plexus nervosi) for the limbs and retain segmental organisation only in the thoracic nerves (nervi thoracici).


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Spinal nerves
parent: Nervi spinales
latin: nervi cervicales
en: Cervical nerves (C1 to C8)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - 8 pairs of cervical nerves, which innervate the skin and muscles of the upper limbs, head and neck


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Spinal nerves
parent: Nervi spinales
latin: nervi thoracici
en: Thoracic nerves (T1 to T12)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, which innervate the intercostal muscles, skin and muscles of the back and thorax


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Spinal nerves
parent: Nervi spinales
latin: nervi lumbales
en: Lumbar nerves (L1 to L5)
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - 5 pairs of lumbar nerves, which innervate the muscles and skin of the abdomen, thighs and skin of the genital organs


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
parent: Spinal nerves classification
en: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  - are thinner and shorter than the anterior branches
  - innervate the posterior (epaxial) part of the trunk
  - provide motor innervation for the epaxial muscles of the back
  - provide sensory innervation for the skin of the nape, back and buttocks
  - retain segmental organisation


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
parent: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
object_id: nervus suboccipitalis
latin: nervus suboccipitalis*3
en: Suboccipital nerve*3
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the posterior branch of C1
  - a purely motor nerve for the suboccipital muscles and the semispinalis capitis

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
parent: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
object_id: nervus occpitalis major
latin: nervus occipitalis major*2
en: Greater occipital nerve*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the posterior branch of C2
  - a purely somatosensory nerve for the skin posterior to the interauricular line (a line joining the auricles in the frontal plane)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.3
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
parent: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
object_id: nervus occipitalis tertius
latin: nervus occipitalis tertius*2
en: Third occipital nerve*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the posterior branch of C3
  - a purely somatosensory nerve innervating a narrow area of the skin medial to the greater occipital nerve

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 150 characters]


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.4
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
parent: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
object_id: nervi clunium superiores
latin: nervi clunium superiores
en: Superior clunial nerves
related_objects: vertebrae lumbales l5,os coccygis,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the posterior branches of L1 to L3
  - provides somatosensory innervation of the superior gluteal region


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 2.5
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
parent: Posterior branches of the spinal nerves
object_id: nervi clunium medii
latin: nervi clunium medii
en: Middle clunial nerves
related_objects: vertebrae lumbales l5,os coccygis,os sacrum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the posterior branches of S1 to S3
  - provides somatosensory innervation of part of the gluteal region


system: nervous
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Spinal nerves classification
sub_group: Anterior branches of the spinal nerves
parent: Spinal nerves classification
en: Anterior branches of the spinal nerves
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  - provide both motor and sensory innervation of the limbs and the hypaxial part of the trunk
  - provide motor innervation of the muscles of the anterior abdomen, thorax and neck (except for the suprahyoid muscles)
  - provide sensory innervation of the skin on the anterior aspect of the abdomen and thorax


