# content_muscular

system: 448
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.1
brief_parent: musculi interossei dorsales
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: musculi interossei dorsales
object_id: musculus interossei dorsalis manus primus
latin: musculus interosseus dorsalis manus primus
en: 1st Dorsal interossei
bloodsupply_related: arteria metacarpalis palmaris prima,arteria metacarpalis dorsalis prima
related_objects:
  os metacarpale pollicis 1, os metacarpale 2,os proximalis manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,

general_description:
  <b>Through the heads of the first dorsal interosseus </b>the radial artery and veins pass to the palm.

innervation_related:
  ramus musculi interosseorum palmarium nervi ulnaris,ramus profundus nervi ulnaris,musculus abductor digiti minimi manus,nervus ulnaris


system: 452
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: Musculi manus
memorix_page: 46/4.1
latin: musculi lumbricales
en: Lumbricals
en_description:
  The lumbricals </b>are four short muscles that originate on the tendons of the flexor digitorum profundus and insert on the2nd - 5th finger. The common function of the lumbricals is <b>flexion in the metacarpophalangeal joints </b>and <b>extension in the interphalangeal joints</b>.


system: 453
custom_hierarchy: 4.1.1
brief_parent: musculi lumbricales manus
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: musculi lumbricales manus
en_innervation: median nerve (C8-T1)
object_id: musculus lumbricales manus primus
latin: musculus lumbricalis manus primus
en: 1st Lumbricals
bloodsupply_related: arcus palmaris superficialis
related_objects:
  musculus flexor digitorum profundus,os proximalis manus 2,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,

innervation_related:
  ramus profundus nervi plantaris lateralis,nervus plantaris lateralis,nervi digitales plantares communes,nervus plantaris medialis,nervus tibialis,musculus lumbricales tertius,musculus lumbricales secundus,musculus lumbricales quartius,musculus lumbricales primus


system: 457
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Musculi membri superioris
latin: Vaginae tendinum membri superioris
en: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
en_description:
  <b>Tendinous sheaths </b>are filled with viscous fluid. <b>They coat tendons in places of high vulnerability during movement</b>, especially when tendons pass under the the flexor and extensor retinaculum and on the fingers. Tendinous sheaths make <b>smooth sliding movements of tendons </b>possible.

general_description:
  <b>The anterior compartment of the forearm </b>is divided into a superficial and deep part by a fibrous septum between the second and third layer of the ventral group of the forearm muscles. The median nerve runs through this septum.

  <b>The intertubercular tendon sheath </b>(vagina tendinis intertubercularis) is a sheath for the long head of the biceps brachii. It arises from the shoulder joint capsule.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Tenosynovitis </b>is inflammation inside the tendon sheath associated with pain, swelling and movement limitation. The condition can be caused by muscle overload.

  <b>Trigger finger </b>(digitus saltans) is a finger disorder caused by swelling of the flexor tendons at the first circular fibrous band (pars anularis A1). A high amount of force is needed to “thread” the swollen tendon through the narrow bands. Treatment is surgical and based on cutting through the bands.

  <b>Contracture of Dupuytren </b>is a pathological shortening of the palmar aponeurosis, which forms thick bands and limits the extent of extension of the fingers. It is a relapsing chronic disease that most typically occurs in men and alcohol consumers. The treatment options range from cutting through the bands to excision of the whole aponeurosis.


system: 458
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Palmar tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/1
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus flexor carpi radialis
latin: vagina tendinis musculi flexoris carpi radialis
en: Tendinous sheath of flexor carpi radialis
related_objects:
  musculus flexor carpi radialis,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 459
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Palmar tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/2
object_id: vagina tendinis musculi longi flexoris pollicis
latin: vagina tendinis musculi flexoris pollicis longi
en: Tendinous sheath of flexor pollicis longus
related_objects:
  musculus flexor policis longus,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 460
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Palmar tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/3
object_id: vagina communis tendinum musculorum flexorum
latin: vagina communis tendinum musculorum flexorum
en: Common flexor sheath
en_description:
  - the common sheath for the flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus
  - usually continues as the tendinous sheath of the little finger

related_objects:
  musculus flexor digitorum superficialis,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 462
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Palmar tendinous sheaths
en_description: - individual sheaths for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th fingers
memorix_page: 50/4
object_id: vagina fibrosae digitorum manus
latin: vaginae synoviales digitorum manus
en: Synovial sheaths of digits of hand
related_objects:
  phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 463
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/1
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus abductor pollicis longus
latin: vagina tendinum musculorum abductoris longi et extensoris pollicis brevis
en: Tendinous sheath of abductor pollicis longus
related_objects:
  musculus abductor pollicis longus,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 464
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/1
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus extensor pollicis brevis
latin: vagina tendinum musculorum abductoris longi et extensoris pollicis brevis
en: Tendinous sheath of extensor pollicis brevis
related_objects:
  musculus extensor pollicis brevis,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 465
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/2
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus extensor carpi radialis brevis
latin: vagina communis tendinum musculorum extensorum carpi radialium
en: Tendinous sheath of extensores carpi radiales
related_objects:
  musculus extensor carpi radialis brevis,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 467
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/4
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus extensor digitorum
latin: vagina tendinum musculorum extensoris digitorum et extensoris indicis
en: Tendinous sheath of extensor digitorum
related_objects:
  musculus extensor digitorum,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 468
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/4
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus extensor indicis
latin: vagina tendinum musculorum extensoris digitorum et extensoris indicis
en: Tendinous sheath of extensor indicis
related_objects:
  musculus extensor indicis,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 469
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/5
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus extensor digiti minimi
latin: vagina tendinis musculi extensoris digiti minimi
en: Tendinous sheath of extensor digiti minimi
related_objects:
  musculus extensor digiti minimi,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 470
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/6
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus extensor carpi ulnaris
latin: vagina tendinis musculi extensoris carpi ulnaris
en: Tendinous sheath of extensor carpi ulnaris
related_objects:
  musculus extensor carpi ulnaris,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 471
custom_hierarchy: 9
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Dorsal tendinous sheaths
memorix_page: 50/6
object_id: vagina synovialis musculus extensor carpi radialis longus
latin: vagina tendinis musculi extensoris carpi radialis longus
en: Tendinous sheath of extensor carpi radialis longus
related_objects:
  musculus extensor carpi radialis longus,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,


system: 472
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: Tendinous sheaths of the fingers
memorix_page: 50/1
latin: vaginae fibrosae digitorum manus
en: Fibrous sheaths of digits of hand
en_description:
  - osteofibrous canals of firm fibrous tissue coating the synovial sheaths of the tendons of the fingers
  - connected to the palmar fibrocartilage of the metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints

general_description:
  <b>Fibrous digital sheaths </b>(vaginae fibrosae digitorum manus) are surrounded by a system of circular fibrous bands which prevent from the bowstring effect during flexion. The bands are ring-shaped (pars anularis; A1 - A5) and crossed (pars cruciformis; C1 - C3). They are attached to the middle and distal phalanges and to the interphalangeal joint capsules. The fingers have eight and the thumb has five bands.


system: 473
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Tendinous sheaths of the upper limb
parent: vaginae fibrosae digitorum manus
memorix_page: 50/1.1
latin: vincula tendinum
en: Vincula tendina
en_description:
  - fibrous connections inside the tendinous sheaths between the flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus
  - provide nutrition to the tendons

general_description:
  <b>Vincula tendinum </b>are always in pair in each tendon sheath. Vinculum breve is triangular and is located at the tendon insertion. Vinculum longum has a longer thread like appearance (adaptation for tendon movement during contraction). It is located proximally to the vinculum breve on the same tendon.


system: 474
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Fasciae of the upper limb
parent: Musculi membri superioris
en: Fasciae of the upper limb
en_description:
  <b>The fasciae of the upper limb form individual compartments </b>(muscle groups) of the upper limb. The thickened distal parts of the fasciae of the forearm form <b>the flexor and extensor retinaculum</b>.


system: 479
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Fasciae of the upper limb
parent: fascia brachii
memorix_page: 51/3.1
latin: septum intermusculare brachii mediale et laterale
en: Medial and lateral intermuscular septa of arm
en_description:
  - osteofascial septa between the muscles of the anterior and posterior group
  - form two brachial compartments (osteofascial spaces): anterior and posterior
  - form two skin grooves: medial and lateral bicipital grooves


system: 484
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Fasciae of the upper limb
parent: Fasciae of the upper limb
memorix_page: 51/5
object_id: ligamentum carpi palmare
latin: retinaculum musculorum flexorum
en: Flexor retinaculum
en_description:
  - a transverse band of thickened antebrachial fascia, located ventrally on the wrist
  - ventrally borders the carpal canal
  - fuses with the palmar carpal ligament

related_objects:
  phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,radius,ulna


system: 490
custom_hierarchy: 7.4
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Fasciae of the upper limb
parent: fasciae manus
memorix_page: 51/7.4
latin: fascia palmaris superficialis
en: Superficial palmar fascia
en_description:
  - covers the muscles of both the thenar and hypothenar eminences and fuses with the palmar aponeurosis
  - is separated from the interosseous palmar fascia by three compartments and is connected with it by two septa (thenar and hypothenar septa)


system: 492
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Fasciae of the upper limb
parent: Fasciae of the upper limb
memorix_page: 51/8
object_id: aponeurosis palmaris
latin: aponeurosis palmaris
en: Palmar aponeurosis
en_description:
  - a fibrous triangle covering the palm
  - fuses with the superficial palmar fascia
  - disappears in bands on the fingers

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 557 characters]


system: 495
custom_hierarchy: 1.4.1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: Musculus adductor pollicis
memorix_page: 46/1.5
object_id: musculus adductor pollicis transversus
latin: caput transversum musculus adductor pollicis
en: Transverse head of adductor pollicis
innervation_related: nervus ulnaris,ramus profundus nervi ulnaris,ramus musculi adductoris pollicis nervi ulnaris
related_objects:
  os metacarpale 4,phalanx proximalis pollicis 2,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,


system: 496
custom_hierarchy: 1.4.2
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: Musculus adductor pollicis
memorix_page: 46/1.6
object_id: musculus adductor pollicis caput obliquum
latin: caput obliquum musculus adductoris pollicis
en: Oblique head of adductor pollicis
related_objects:
  os metacarpale 5,phalanx proximalis pollicis 3,phalanx distalis manus 5, phalanx media manus 5, phalanx media manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 4, phalanx distalis manus 3, phalanx media manus 3, phalanx distalis manus 2, phalanx media manus 2, os proximalis manus 2, os proximalis manus 3, os proximalis manus 4, os metacarpale 5, os metacarpale 4, os metacarpale 3, os metacarpale 2, phalanx distalis pollicis 1, phalanx proximalis pollicis 1, os metacarpale pollicis 1, os trapezium, os trapezoideum, os scaphoideum, os capitatum, os hamatum, os triquetrum, os lunatum, os proximalis manus 5,


system: 497
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: Musculi manus
latin: musculi interossei
en: Interossei
en_description:
  <b>The palmar interossei </b>are three muscles in the 2nd, 4th and 5th interosseous space in between the metacarpals. <b>The dorsal interossei </b>are four muscles in the 1st-4th interosseous space in between the metacarpals. Their function is adduction from(palmar interossei) and abduction from (dorsal interossei) a virtual axis that runs through the center of the 3rd finger.<b>

general_description:
  <b>The palmar and dorsal interossei and lumbricals </b>generate the main force for extension of the middle and distal phalanges. The extensor digitorum performs especially extension of the proximal phalanx, however, it only has a weak effect on the other two phalanges. Extension of all phalanges is possible due to a common contraction of all these muscles.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Interossei overload </b>leads to interphalangeal joints arthrosis. And vice versa, interphalangeal joints arthritis leads to the muscle overload.

  <b>Projection of pain from the palmar or dorsal interosseus </b>is located on the homolateral side of the finger where the muscle insertion is situated.


system: 498
custom_hierarchy: 4.1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: musculi lumbricales
en_description: - four muscles corresponding to the 2nd-5th digits
en_origin: on the tendons of the flexor digitorum profundus of the 2nd-5th finger
en_innervation:
  Innervation:
  Lumbrical I and II: median nerve (C8-T1)
  Lumbrical III and IV: ulnar nerve (C8-T1)

memorix_page: 46/4.1
latin: musculi lumbricales manus
en: Lumbricals of the hand
en_insertion:
  dorsal aponeurosis of the 2nd-5th digits, base of the proximal phalanges of the 2nd-5th finger (laterally)

en_function:
  flexion of the digits at the metacarpophalangeal joints, extension of the phalanges at the interphalangeal joints (by pulling the dorsal aponeurosis), radial duction of the fingers at the metacarpophalangeal joints (towards the thumb)

general_description:
  <b>The interossei and lumbricals are stretched </b>by interweaving of both hands, fingers and pushing them against each other in front of the sternum.


system: 499
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: Musculi manus
en: Thenar muscles (thumb group)
en_description:
  The thenar group consists of <b>four muscles </b>that provide <b>movements of the thumb</b>. <b>The flexor pollicis brevis and adductor pollicis </b>have <b>two heads</b>. The thenar muscles are innervated by both the <b>median nerve </b>and the <b>ulnar nerve</b>. The borderline between the domains of these nerves is formed by the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus.

general_description:
  <b>Contemporary occupations </b>lead more commonly to hypotonicity of the hypothenar muscles than of the thenar muscles.


system: 500
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Muscles of the upper limb
muscle_group: Muscles of the hand
parent: Musculi manus
en: Hypothenar muscles (little finger group)
en_description:
  <b>The hypothenar muscles </b>are a group of <b>four muscles</b>. Three of them (abductor digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi brevis and opponens digiti minimi) provide <b>movements of the little finger</b>. The palmaris brevis is a rudimentary cutaneous muscle. All of the hypothenar muscles are innervated by the <b>ulnar nerve</b>.


system: 519
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Perineum
muscle_group: Urogenital floor
parent: Urogenital floor
memorix_page: 256
object_id: musculus bulbospongiosus,musculus bulbospongiosus f
latin: musculus bulbospongiosus
en: Bulbospongius muscle
related_objects: os sacrum, os coccygis, pelvis
bloodsupply_related: arteria perinealis
innervation_related: nervi perineales
syntopy_related: pelvis
en_description:
  - evacuates the urethra during micturition and ejaculation (male)
  - compresses the vestibule, evacuating the vestibular glands (female)


system: 526
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: Muscles of the tongue
en_origin: superior mental spine
en_insertion: lingual aponeurosis
en_function: protrusion and depression of the tongue and protects the tongue from falling backwards
memorix_page: 177
object_id: musculus genioglosus
latin: musculus genioglosus
en: Genioglosus
related_objects: mandibula
bloodsupply_related: arteria sublingualis,arteria lingualis,arteria profunda linguae
innervation_related: nervus hypoglossus
syntopy_related:
  gingiva,glandula submandibularis 1,pars oralis pharyngis,pars laryngea pharyngis,os hyoideum,linguae frontal,linguae distal,mandibula


system: 529
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: Muscles of the tongue
en_description: <b>Course</b>: within the palatoglossal arch
en_origin: the lateral margins of the palatine aponeurosis
en_insertion: the root of the tongue
en_innervation: vagus nerve
memorix_page: 177
object_id: musculus palatoglosus
latin: musculus palatoglosus
en: Palatoglossus
bloodsupply_related: arteria sublingualis,arteria lingualis,arteria profunda linguae,arteria facialis
innervation_related: nervus hypoglossus
en_function:
  elevation of the root of the tongue and depression of the soft palate, thus the final action is to narrow the opening of the pharynx

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 133 characters]


system: 531
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: Palate muscles
en_description: <b>Course</b>: within the palatopharyngeal arch
en_insertion: posterior margin of the thyroid cartilage and he wall of the pharynx
en_innervation: vagus nerve
memorix_page: 179
object_id: musculus palatopharyngeus
latin: musculus palatopharyngeus
en: Palatopharyngeus
related_objects: os temporale 1
bloodsupply_related: arteria palatina ascendens,arteria palatina major,ramus pahryngeus superior trunci pharyngei
innervation_related: plexus pharyngeus
en_origin:
  palatine aponeurosis and medial lamina of pterygoid process of sphenoid bone, pterygoid hamulus and the inferior part of the auditory tube

en_function:
  elevation of the pharynx and depression of the soft palate, thus the final action is narrowing of the opening of the pharynx (the fauces)

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 133 characters]


system: 532
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: Palate muscles
en_insertion: palatine aponeurosis
en_innervation: mandibular nerve (branch of the trigeminal nerve)
object_id: musculus tensor veli palatini
latin: musculus tensor veli palatini
en: Tensor veli plalatini
related_objects: os temporale 1,os palatinum 1,musculus uvulae
bloodsupply_related: arteria palatina major,arteria palatina ascendens
innervation_related: nervus pterygoideus medialis
en_description:
  <b>Course</b>: descends laterally from the medial lamina of the pterygoid process of sphenoid bone, its inserting tendon turns medially around the pterygoid hamulus

en_origin:
  spine of sphenoid bone, scaphoid fossa of sphenoid bone, lateral side of the cartilaginous part of the auditory tube

en_function:
  tenses the soft palate and narrows the auditory tube by pressing its tendon on the wall of the auditory tube

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 133 characters]


system: 533
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: Palate muscles
en_origin: apex of petrous part of temporal bone, medial wall of the cartilaginous part of auditory tube
en_insertion: palatine aponeurosis
en_function: elevates the soft palate
en_innervation: vagus nerve
object_id: musculus levator veli palatini
latin: musculus levator veli palatini
en: Levator veli palatini
related_objects: os temporale 1,os palatinum 1,musculus uvulae
bloodsupply_related: arteria palatina ascendens
innervation_related: plexus pharyngeus
en_description:
  the levator of the soft palate
  <b>Course</b>: descends medially from the medial lamina of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 133 characters]


system: 536
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: Pharynx muscles
latin: musculi constrictores pharyngis
en: Pharyngeal constrictors
en_description:
  The fibres of the pharyneal constrictors have a circular course and overlap each other in a craniocaudal direction.
  They originate on the base of the skull and its neighboring structures and insert into the pharyngeal raphe.


system: 537
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: musculi constrictores pharyngis
object_id: raphe pharyngis
latin: raphe pharyngis
en: Pharyngeal raphe
bloodsupply_related: arteria pharyngea ascendens,ramus tonsillaris arteriae facialis,
innervation_related: plexus pharyngeus
en_description:
  - a band of connective tissue in the posterior wall of the pharynx, where the pharyngeal constrictors are inserted

related_objects:
  os occipitale,pars cervicalis oseophagi,mandibula,os hyoideum,pars abdominalis oseophagi,pars thoracica oseophagi

syntopy_related:
  gingiva,pars oralis pharyngis,pars laryngea pharyngis,os hyoideum,linguae distal,linguae frontal,mandibula,os temporale 1,musculus stylopharyngeus


system: 549
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: Pharynx muscles
latin: musculi levatores pharyngis
en: Pharyngeal levators
en_description:
  The levators have a longitudinal course and descend to the pharyngeal wall from either the outside or the inside of the pharynx. They originate on the base of the skull and its neighboring structures and insert into the pharyngeal muscular wall made by the pharyngeal constrictors.


system: 550
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: musculi levatores pharyngis
object_id: musculus stylopharyngeus
latin: musculus stylopharyngeus
en: Stylopharyngeus
related_objects: os temporale 1,musculus constrictor pharyngis inferior,mandibula,os hyoideum
bloodsupply_related: ramus pahryngeus superior trunci pharyngei,truncus pharyngeus,arteria pharyngea ascendens
innervation_related: nervus glossopharyngeus
en_description:
  - originates on the styloid process and inserts on the outer wall of the pharynx
  - runs through a cleft between the superior and middle constrictors
  - innervation: pharyngeal plexus (n. IX)

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 146 characters]


system: 551
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: musculi levatores pharyngis
object_id: musculus salpingopharyngeus
latin: musculus salpingopharyngeus
en: Salpingopharyngeus
related_objects: musculus palatopharyngeus,mandibula,os hyoideum
innervation_related: plexus pharyngeus
en_description:
  - originates on the medial margin of the cartilaginous part of the auditory tube and inserts on the inner wall of the pharynx
  - innervation: pharyngeal plexus

bloodsupply_related:
  arteria palatina ascendens,arteria palatina major,ramus pahryngeus superior trunci pharyngei,truncus pharyngeus,arteria pharyngea ascendens

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 146 characters]


system: 552
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the digestive system
parent: musculi levatores pharyngis
latin: musculus palatopharyngeus *2
en: Palatopharyngeus *2
en_description:
  - originates on the margin of the soft palate, runs in the palatopharyngeal arch and inserts on the inner wall of the pharynx
  - innervation: pharyngeal plexus


system: 556
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: Ventral group
memorix_page: 213
latin: musculus cricothyroideus
en: Cricothyroid
related_objects: 241
en_description:
  <b>course:</b> from the ventral side of the cricoid cartilage laterocranially to the caudal margin of the thyroid cartilage
  <b>function: </b> moves the thyroid cartilage ventrocaudally while concurrently moving the arch of the cricoid cartilage cranially, tightening the vocal folds


system: 557
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: musculus cricothyroideus
object_id: musculus cricothyroideus recta 1
latin: pars recta musculi cricothyroidei
en: Cricothyroid straight part
bloodsupply_related: ramus cricothyroideus arteriae thyroideae superioris
innervation_related: ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 1
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2

syntopy_related:
  cartilago epiglottica,cartilago cricoidea,pars laryngea pharyngis,pars oralis pharyngis,os hyoideum,cartilago thyroidea,ligamentum cricotracheale,cartilagines tracheales,ligamenta anularia


system: 560
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: Lateral group of crycothyroid
object_id: musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1
latin: musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis
en: Lateral cricoarytenoid
bloodsupply_related: ramus cricothyroideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,arteria laryngea superior
innervation_related: ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 1
en_description:
  <b>course:</b>from the cranial part of the lateral margin of the cricoid cartilage to the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage
  <b>function: </b> moves the muscular process ventrolaterally, adducting the vocal cords and closing the intermembranous part of the rima glottidis

related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2

syntopy_related:
  cartilago epiglottica,cartilago cricoidea,pars laryngea pharyngis,pars oralis pharyngis,os hyoideum,cartilago thyroidea,ligamentum cricotracheale,cartilagines tracheales,ligamenta anularia


system: 561
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: Lateral group of crycothyroid
object_id: musculus thyroarytenoideus 1
latin: musculus thyroarytenoideus
en: Thyroarytenoid
bloodsupply_related: ramus cricothyroideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,arteria laryngea superior
innervation_related: ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 2
en_description:
  <b>course:</b> from the internal side of the thyroid cartilage along the external side of the vocal ligament to the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage
  <b>function: </b>internal rotation and ventral shift of the arytenoid cartilage
  - adduction and shortening of the vocal ligament (narrows the rima glottidis)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 394 characters]

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 188 characters]


system: 562
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.1
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: musculus thyroarytenoideus
object_id: musculus vocalis
latin: musculus vocalis
en: Vocalis muscle
bloodsupply_related: ramus cricothyroideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,arteria laryngea superior
en_description:
  - the medial part of the thyroarytenoid adjacent to the vocal ligament
  - shortens and relaxes the vocal ligament
  - the main muscle regulating strain on the vocal ligaments
  - contains many motor units

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 394 characters]

innervation_related:
  rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 1,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 1,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 188 characters]


system: 563
custom_hierarchy: 2.2.2
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: musculus thyroarytenoideus
latin: pars thyroepiglottica
en: Thyro-epiglottic part
bloodsupply_related: ramus cricothyroideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,arteria laryngea superior
en_description:
  <b>course:</b> fascicles of the thyroarytenoid from the thyroid cartilage extending to the lateral margin of the epiglottis
  <b>function: </b> moves the margins of the epiglottis ventrally enlarging the rima glottidis

innervation_related:
  rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 1,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 1,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 188 characters]


system: 565
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: Dorsal group
object_id: musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1
latin: musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior
en: Posterior cricoarytenoid
bloodsupply_related: arteria laryngea inferior
en_description:
  <b>course:</b> begins on the dorsal side of the cricoid cartilage and runs craniolaterally to the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage
  <b>function: </b> external rotation and abduction of the arytenoid cartilage
  - abducts and lengthens the vocal ligament, enlarging the laryngeal inlet

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 394 characters]

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 188 characters]


system: 566
custom_hierarchy: 3.2
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: Dorsal group
object_id: musculus arytenoideus obliquus
latin: musculus arytenoideus transversus
en: Transverse arytenoid
bloodsupply_related: arteria laryngea inferior
en_description:
  <b>course:</b> transversally connects both arytenoid cartilages on their dorsal sides
  <b>function: </b> adduction of the arytenoid cartilages
  - adducts the vocal ligaments, narrowing the rima glottidis
  (both the intercartilaginous and interarytenoid parts)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 394 characters]

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 188 characters]


system: 567
custom_hierarchy: 3.3
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: Dorsal group
object_id: musculus arytenoideus transversus
latin: musculus arytenoideus obliquus
en: Oblique arytenoid
bloodsupply_related: arteria laryngea inferior
en_description:
  <b>course:</b> obliquely connects both arytenoid cartilages on their dorsal sides
  <b>function: </b> adduction of the arytenoid cartilages
  - adducts the vocal ligaments, narrowing the rima glottidis (both the intercartilaginous and interarytenoid parts)
  - with the transverse arytenoid forms the strongest vocal ligament adductor

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 394 characters]

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 188 characters]


system: 568
custom_hierarchy: 3.3.1
main_group: Internal organ muscles
muscle_group: Muscles of the respiratory system
parent: musculus arytenoideus obliquus
object_id: musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1
latin: arytenoideus obliquus pars aryepiglottica
en: Ary-epiglottic part of arytenoid muscle
bloodsupply_related: arteria laryngea inferior
en_description:
  <b>course:</b> fascicles of the oblique arytenoid extending to the lateral margin of the epiglottic cartilage
  - forms the aryepiglottic fold
  <b>function: </b> moves the margins of the epiglottis dorsocaudally, and thus depresses the epiglottis, closing the laryngeal inlet

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 394 characters]

syntopy_related:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 188 characters]


system: 570
main_group: Perineum
muscle_group: Urogenital floor
parent: perineum et musculi perinei
en: Urogenital floor
en_description:
  The perineum is the<b> region between the external genitalia and the anus</b>. The striated perineal muscles are arranged in two layers. They form the triangular fibromuscular <b>urogenital floor</b> (diaphragma urogenitale) spread between the ischial tuberosities and the inferior pubic rami. The urogenital floor contains a hiatus for the terminal segment of the urogenital tract. The perineal muscles <b>act as sphincters and contribute to erection and ejaculation</b>. They are innervated by <b>the pudendal nerve</b> (from spinal cord segments S2-S4).


system: 571
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Perineum
muscle_group: Urogenital floor
parent: Urogenital floor
object_id: musculus ischiocavernosus,musculus ischiocavernosus f
latin: musculus ischiocavernosus
en: Ischiocavernosus
related_objects: os sacrum, os coccygis, pelvis,pelvis_CLONED
bloodsupply_related: arteria perinealis
innervation_related: rami musculares nervi perinealis,nervus perinealis superficialis,nervi perineales
syntopy_related: pelvis
en_description:
  - compresses the crus of the penis, contributing to erection (male)
  - compresses the crus of the clitoris (female)


system: 572
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Perineum
muscle_group: Urogenital floor
parent: Urogenital floor
en_description: - the deep muscular part of the urogenital floor
latin: musculus transversus perinei profundus
en: Deep transverse perineal muscle
related_objects: os sacrum, os coccygis, pelvis,pelvis_CLONED
bloodsupply_related: arteria pudenda interna
innervation_related: nervus pudendus
syntopy_related: pelvis
object_id:
  musculus transversus profundus perinei 1,musculus transversus profundus perinei 2,musculus transversus profundus perinei f 1,musculus transversus profundus perinei f 2


system: 573
custom_hierarchy: 1.6
main_group: Perineum
muscle_group: Urogenital floor
parent: Urogenital floor
en_description: - compresses and extends the urethra
object_id: compressor urethrae f 1,compressor urethrae f 2
latin: musculus compressor urethrae
en: Compressor urethrae
related_objects: os sacrum, os coccygis, pelvis,pelvis_CLONED
innervation_related: nervi perineales
syntopy_related: pelvis
bloodsupply_related:
  arteria pudenda interna,arteria vesicalis inferior,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria rectalis media 2


system: 574
custom_hierarchy: 1.7
main_group: Perineum
muscle_group: Urogenital floor
parent: Urogenital floor
object_id: musculus sphincter uretrae f
latin: musculus sphincter uretrae
en: Urethral sphincter
related_objects: os sacrum, os coccygis, pelvis,pelvis_CLONED
innervation_related: nervi perineales
syntopy_related: pelvis
bloodsupply_related:
  arteria pudenda interna,arteria vesicalis inferior,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria rectalis media 3


# content_urinary

system: urogenital
main_group: Urinary system
en: Urinary system
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
   The urinary system is comprised of <b>two kidneys, two renal pelves, two ureters, the urinary bladder and the urethra</b>. The kidney is the main organ of the urinary system. Its roles include <b>plasma filtration, excretion of the waste products of metabolism, acid-base homeostasis</b>, <b>regulation of blood pressure and blood volume </b>(via renin), <b>hormone secretion </b>(erythropoietin) and <b>metabolism of vitamin D</b>. Urine is transported via the renal pelves and ureters to the urinary bladder before being excreted through the urethra.

general_description:
  <b>The excretory system </b>is a synonymous term the urinary system. However, as other organ systems take part in the excretion of waste products, this term is less accurate.

  <b>The urogenital sinus </b>is the anterior half of the cloaca. The cloaca is the common end of the urinary, digestive and genital systems in the developing human. It divides into the urogenital sinus and anal canal.

  <b>Primary urine </b>is plasma ultrafiltrate. 150-180 l of primary urine are produced per day.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Coverings of kidney
parent: Coverings of kidney
memorix_page: 227
latin: corpus adiposum pararenale
en: Paranephric fat
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a body of fat surrounding the kidney, located between the retrorenal lamina of the renal fascia and the transversalis fascia
  - extends caudally to the upper margins of the iliac fossa


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Coverings of kidney
parent: Coverings of kidney
memorix_page: 227
latin: fascia renalis
en: Renal fascia / Gerota’s fascia
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - is composed of an anterior and a posterior layer that fuse at the lateral margin and superior pole of the kidney
  - the layers remain separated caudally, creating a space that the kidney can move into (ren migrans)
  - contains the capsuloadipose vessels
  - represents a condensed extension of the transversal fascia, the internal lining of the abdominal cavity


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Coverings of kidney
parent: Coverings of kidney
memorix_page: 227
object_id: ren 1,ren 2,!ren cap 1,!ren cap 2
latin: capsula fibrosa
en: Fibrous capsule
cell_type: 0
color: b53db6
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - loosely covers the kidney
  - is attached firmly only to the vessels and the renal pelvis at the hilum of the kidney

related_objects:
  pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t11


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.5
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: External structures of kidney
parent: External structures of kidney
memorix_page: 227
object_id: ren 1,ren cap 1,ren 2,ren cap 2
latin: hilum renale
en: Hilum of kidney
cell_type: 0
color: f4eb77
hit_position: -1.38187,10.31686,-0.67659
hit_normal: 20.05918,2.95599,15.96065
body_rotation: 3.75358,304.63580,354.58620
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a vertical slit on the medial border where the renal vessels enter and leave the kidney and the location of the renal pelvis

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 176 characters]


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Longitudinal sections of kidney
parent: Renes
en: Longitudinal sections of kidney
cell_type: 1
tags: urinary
en_description:
  <b>The kidneys </b>are located <b>in the retroperitoneal space </b>on both sides of the vertebral column. The left kidney extends from vertebra T12 to L2 and the right kidney extends from vertebra T12 to L3. There are <b>five renal segments</b>, defined according to their vascular supply. Ventrally, the kidneys are covered by parietal peritoneum. Their dorsal surfaces lie close to the muscles of the posterior abdominal wall. <b>The hilum of the left kidney lies against vertebra L1</b>. The hilum of the right kidney lies slightly more caudal than this, as it is pushed by the mass of the liver. At birth, the kidney is composed of 6 renal pyramids. This number increases to 7-18 in adulthood.

general_description:
  <b>Nephros </b><i>(pl. nephroi) </i>is the Greek term for kidney.

  <b>There are approximately 1 to 1.5 million nephrons </b>in a single kidney.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Dissection of the renal fibrous capsule </b>is a procedure that is infrequently performed after the resection of benign tumors to cover the resulting defect.

  <b>Developmental variations in the shape and size of the kidney </b>(that may or may not result in malfunction):
  - <b>horseshoe kidney</b> <i>(ren arcuatus/unguliformis)</i>
  - <b>supernumerary kidney </b> <i>(ren supernumerarius)</i>
  - <b>sigmoid kidney </b> <i>(ren sigmoideus)</i>
  - <b>cake (lump/fused pelvic) kidney </b> <i>(ren fungiformis)</i>

  <b>Tapotement </b>is part of the physical examination of the kidney. The examiner strikes the patient’s lumbar area with the ulnar side of his/her palm. Pain is a positive result and may be a sign of kidney inflammation (pyelonephritis).

  <b>Renal artery stenosis </b>is a narrowing of the renal artery. Decreased blood flow in the renal vascular bed disrupts the regulation of blood pressure and can result in hypertension.

  <b>Brodel’s bloodless line </b>is a watershed area between areas supplied by the anterior and posterior branches of the renal artery. It carries a lower risk of bleeding when being cut during nephrotomy or lithotomy (surgical removal of kidney stones). Due to its low perfusion, it is an optimal place for insertion of a renal catheter.

  <b>A floating kidney </b><i>(ren migrans / nephroptosis) </i>describes a situation in which the renal capsule is weakened due to an excessive loss of perinephric fat (extreme weight loss), and the kidney descends within the retroperitoneal space to the pelvic cavity. Although the renal vessels descend along the kidney, their origin remains at the level of vertebra L2.

  <b>An ectopic kidney </b>is a kidney located in an abnormal position. It results from failure of the kidney to reach its normal position during development and is usually located more caudal than the normal position. Its arteries arise from the aorta at the corresponding level.

  <b>A transplanted kidney </b>is usually positioned in the right iliac fossa. It is more common than an ectopic or floating kidney in the same location


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Longitudinal sections of kidney
parent: Longitudinal sections of kidney
object_id: ren cap 1,ren cap 2
latin: ren pars ventralis
en: Ventral section of the kidney
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 176 characters]

blood_supply:
  aorta abdominalis,ramus posterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus posterior arteriae renalis 1,ramus anterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus anterior arteriae renalis 1,arteriae lobares 2,arteriae lobares 1,arteriae interlobares 2,arteriae interlobares 1,arteriae arcuatae 2,arteriae arcuatae 1,arteria renalis 2,arteria renalis 1,venae arcuatae 1,venae interlobares 1,venae lobares 1,venae arcuatae 2,venae interlobares 2,venae lobares 2,ramus posterior venae renalis 1,ramus anterior venae renalis 2,vena renalis 2,vena cava inferior,ramus posterior venae renalis 2,ramus anterior venae renalis 1,vena renalis 1

innervation:
  ganglion renalis 1,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,nervus splanchnicus minor 1,ganglion aorticorenale 1,plexus renalis 1,ganglion renalis 2,ganglion aorticorenale 2,nervus splanchnicus minor 2,plexus renalis 2

syntopy:
  Stomach,Duodenum,Jejunum and ileum,Large Intestine,Liver,Gallbladder,Pancreas,Suprarenal/adrenal glands,musculus psoas major_l,musculus quadratus lumborum_l,musculus transversus abdominis_l,musculus psoas major_r,musculus quadratus lumborum_r,musculus transversus abdominis_r


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.2
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Internal structures of kidney
parent: Internal structures of kidney
memorix_page: 227
latin: medulla renalis
en: Renal medulla
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - is composed of the intermediate tubules, tubules of the juxtamedullary nephrons and collecting ducts in renal pyramids


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.2.1
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Internal structures of kidney
parent: medulla renalis
memorix_page: 227
object_id: pyramides renales 1,pyramides renales 2
latin: pyramides renales
en: Renal pyramids
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - their bases projecting outwards to the renal cortex
  - there are 7-18 renal pyramids in the adult kidney

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 176 characters]

blood_supply:
  aorta abdominalis,ramus posterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus posterior arteriae renalis 1,ramus anterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus anterior arteriae renalis 1,arteriae lobares 2,arteriae lobares 1,arteriae interlobares 2,arteriae interlobares 1,arteriae arcuatae 2,arteriae arcuatae 1,arteria renalis 2,arteria renalis 1,venae arcuatae 1,venae interlobares 1,venae lobares 1,venae arcuatae 2,venae interlobares 2,venae lobares 2,ramus posterior venae renalis 1,ramus anterior venae renalis 2,vena renalis 2,vena cava inferior,ramus posterior venae renalis 2,ramus anterior venae renalis 1,vena renalis 1

innervation:
  ganglion renalis 1,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,nervus splanchnicus minor 1,ganglion aorticorenale 1,plexus renalis 1,ganglion renalis 2,ganglion aorticorenale 2,nervus splanchnicus minor 2,plexus renalis 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.4
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Internal structures of kidney
parent: Internal structures of kidney
memorix_page: 227
object_id: ren 1,ren 2,!ren cap 1,!ren cap 2,!pyramides renales 1,!pyramides renales 2
latin: lobi renales
en: Kidney lobes
cell_type: 0
color: baed58
hit_position: -2.31579,10.08121,-0.64572
hit_normal: -4.16898,7.55516,20.29637
body_rotation: 19.22796,9.55107,3.17162
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - are composed of the renal pyramids and contiguous cortex
  - macroscopically visible in the early periods of development (lobulated kidney)

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 176 characters]


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Histology
parent: Histology
memorix_page: 228
en: Nephron
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - the single functional unit of renal tissue
  - the cortical nephron is located in the renal cortex
  - the juxtamedullary nephron is located in the cortex in close proximity to the renal medulla


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Histology
parent: Special structure
memorix_page: 228
latin: complexus juxtaglomerularis
en: Juxtaglomerular complex
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - an apparatus consisting of the juxtaglomerular cells (modified smooth muscle cells of the afferent and efferent arterioles), extraglomerular mesangium, macula densa of the distal tubule, and granular epithelial peripolar cells
  - maintains stable blood pressure and intravascular volume and regulates sodium and water homeostasis by releasing the hormone (enzyme) renin


system: urogenital
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Development
parent: Development
memorix_page: 228
latin: diverticulum ureteris
en: Ureteric bud
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - originates from the mesonephric duct (ductus mesonephricus Wolffi )
  - releases the signal for differentiation of surrounding mesodermal cells into nephrons
  - without this stimulating structure, kidney tissue does not develop at all (renal aplasia)
  - partial failure results in renal cystic diseases (cysts compress the healthy kidney tissue which leads to renal atrophy or even renal failure)


system: urogenital
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Regional anatomy
parent: Regional anatomy
memorix_page: 229
en: Posterior surface for both kidneys
cell_type: 5
tags: urinary
en_description:
  Structures related to the posterior surface of both kidneys:
  - 11th and 12th rib
  - subcostal nerve
  - iliohypogastric nerve
  - ilioinguinal nerve


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: arteria renalis dextra et sinistra
memorix_page: 229
latin: ramus anterior
en: Anterior branch
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  -<indent=3em> has 4 branches that supply the anterior segments </indent>
  -<indent=3em>superior segmental artery (a. segmenti superioris)</indent>
  -<indent=3em>inferior segmental artery (a. segmenti inferioris)</indent>
  -<indent=3em>anterior superior segmental artery (a. segmenti anterioris superioris)</indent>
  -<indent=3em>anterior inferior segmental artery (a. segmenti anterioris inferioris)</indent>


system: urogenital
main_group: Kidneys
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Vascular supply
memorix_page: 229
en: Lymphatic drainage
cell_type: 5
tags: urinary
en_description:
  lateral aortic nodes, where three lymphatic plexuses terminate one from the parenchyma, one from the fibrous capsule and one from the fat capsule)


system: urogenital
main_group: Renal pelvis and renal calices
memorix_page: 230
latin: Pelvis renalis et calices renales
en: Renal pelvis and renal calices
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  <b>The renal pelvis and renal calices </b>are parts of the upper urinary tract. They <b>collect urine </b>from the kidney <b>and direct it into the ureters</b>. They have the same innervation, vascular supply and lymphatic drainage as the kidneys.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Renal pelvis and renal calices
sub_group: Structure
parent: Structure
en_description: - small calices encircling the renal papillae (7-18)
memorix_page: 230
object_id: calices minores 1,calices minores 2
latin: calices minores
en: Minor calices
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ureter
tags: urinary
clinical_notes:
  <b>In the endoscopic percutaneous approach to the renal calices</b>, a needle is inserted in a direction parallel to the course of the calyx and directed towards the papilla. In this location the vasculature is most scarce, which eliminate the risk of bleeding.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Renal pelvis and renal calices
sub_group: Structure
parent: Structure
memorix_page: 230
object_id: pelvis renalis 1,pelvis renalis 2
latin: pelvis renalis
en: Renal pelvis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ureter
tags: urinary
clinical_notes:
  <b>Hydronephrosis </b>describes a situation where the renal pelvis is dilated due to either obstruction in the flow of urine or upstream flow of urine from the urinary bladder to the ureters and renal pelves and calyces.

  <b>Vesicoureteral reflux </b>occurs when the uretero-vesical junction is insufficient, allowing urine to flow upstream, back into the ureters and renal pelvis.

blood_supply:
  ramus anterior arteriae renalis 1,ramus posterior arteriae renalis 1,ramus posterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus anterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus posterior venae renalis 1,ramus anterior venae renalis 2,ramus anterior venae renalis 1,ramus posterior venae renalis 2,arteria renalis 1,vena renalis 2,vena renalis 1,arteria renalis 2


system: urogenital
main_group: Ureter
memorix_page: 230
en: Ureter
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  <b>The ureter is a muscular tube that transports urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder.</b> Its <b>peristaltic movements</b> pass urine in waves to the urinary bladder.Therefore, urine flow is not continuous.

general_description:
  <b>The ureter </b>is 25-30 cm long and 4-7 mm wide.

  <b>The muscular layer </b>(<i>tunica muscularis</i>) of the ureteric wall is composed of two layers: the internal longitudinal and external circular layer. The intramural part of the ureter has a &lsquo;&lsquo;third collar-like’’ layer, called Waldeyer's sheath.

  <b>The urachus </b>is a remnant of the allantoenteric diverticulum. It is found within the median umbilical ligament (<i>ligamentum umbilicale medianum</i>) on the posterior side of the anterior abdominal wall.

  <b>The uretero-vesical junction region </b>is described as the intramural part of the ureter, adjacent wall of the urinary bladder and ureteric orifice.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Developmental anomalies of the ureter:</b>
  <b>Ureter fissus </b>- a ureter divided in two in its proximal part with a single opening into the urinary bladder. 
  <b>Ureter duplex </b>- a double ureter with two separate openings into the urinary bladder.

  <b>Ureterocele </b>is a dilation of the distal part of the ureter curved inwards to the cavity of the urinary bladder.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Ureter
sub_group: Parts and orifices of ureter
parent: Parts and orifices of ureter
en_description: - courses in the retroperitoneal space
memorix_page: 230
object_id: ureter pars abdominalis 1,ureter pars abdominalis 2
latin: pars abdominalis
en: Abdominal part
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ureter
tags: urinary
blood_supply:
  ramus posterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus posterior arteriae renalis 1,ramus anterior arteriae renalis 2,ramus anterior arteriae renalis 1,arteriae lobares 2,arteriae lobares 1,arteria renalis 2,arteria renalis 1,venae lobares 2,venae lobares 1,vena renalis 2,vena renalis 1,ramus posterior venae renalis 2,ramus posterior venae renalis 1,ramus anterior venae renalis 2,ramus anterior venae renalis 1,arteria rectalis media 2,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria iliaca interna pars viscerales,arteria iliaca interna pars parietales,arteria iliaca interna,arteria ductus deferentis,arteria testicularis 2,arteria testicularis 1

innervation:
  plexus vesicalis 2,plexus vesicalis 1,plexus renalis 1,ganglion aorticorenale 1,plexus aorticus abdominalis,plexus renalis 2,ganglion aorticorenale 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Ureter
sub_group: Constrictions
parent: Constrictions
memorix_page: 230
en: Crossing the iliac vessels
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - the right ureter runs ventrally to the external iliac artery and vein
  - the left ureter runs ventrally to the common iliac artery and vein


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Ureter
sub_group: Vascular supply and innervation
parent: Vascular supply and innervation
memorix_page: 230
en: Arterial supply
cell_type: 5
tags: urinary
en_description:
  in both sexes: renal artery, internal iliac artery, superior vesicular artery and middle rectal artery
  in males: plus the testicular artery and artery to the ductus deferens
  in female: plus the ovarian and uterine arteries


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Ureter
sub_group: Vascular supply and innervation
parent: Vascular supply and innervation
memorix_page: 230
en: Innervation
cell_type: 5
tags: urinary
en_description:
  sympathetic, parasympathetic and visceral sensory nerve fibres from the ureteric plexus (plexus ureteric us), which originate in the abdominal aortic and renal plexuses (plexus aorticus abdominalis, plexus renalis)


system: urogenital
main_group: Urinary bladder
memorix_page: 231
latin: Vesica urinaria
en: Urinary bladder
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  <b>The urinary bladder </b>is a subperitoneal located hollow organ. It <b>collects urine</b>, which it releases by contractions of the <b>detrusor muscle </b><i>(m. detrusor vesicae) </i>into the urethra. As the amount of urine in the bladder increases, the tension in the walls of the bladder increases, which eventually leads to the activation of the sacral parasympathetic system via visceral sensory nerves. This triggers contractions of the detrusor muscle, leading to an urgent need to micturate.

general_description:
  <b>Urocystis </b>is the Greek term for urinary bladder.

  <b>The vertex </b>is the highest point of a full urinary bladder.

  <b>Bell’s muscular fascicles </b>are a pair of muscular fascicles between the ureteric orifice and the internal urethral orifice.

  <b>Micturition </b><i>(micturition) </i>is the Latin term for urination.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The retropubic space of Retzius </b><i>(spatium retropubicum) </i>is used as an extraperitoneal surgical approach to the urinary bladder or prostate. It avoids entering the peritoneal cavity.

  <b>The external iliac nodes </b>need to be removed during radical cystectomy as they drain the urinary bladder.

  <b>Epicystostomy </b><i>(sectio alta) </i>is a method to directly drain urine from the bladder by a inserting urine catheter through the anterior abdominal wall (extraperitoneal approach).


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: External structures of urinary bladder
parent: External structures of urinary bladder
en_description: - is covered by peritoneum
memorix_page: 231
object_id: corpus vesicae,corpus vesicae f
latin: corpus vesicae
en: Body of bladder
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
innervation: plexus vesicalis 2,plexus vesicalis 1
syntopy: Large Intestine,ileum,prostata 1,prostata 2
blood_supply:
  arteria vesicalis inferior_l,arteriae vesicales superiores_l,arteria vesicalis inferior_r,arteriae vesicales superiores_r,plexus venosus vesicalis_l.plexus venosus vesicalis_r,plexus venosus prostaticus_l,plexus venosus prostaticus_r,,vena dorsalis profunda penis


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: External structures of urinary bladder
parent: External structures of urinary bladder
memorix_page: 231
object_id: fundus vesicae,fundus vesicae f
latin: fundus vesicae
en: Fundus of bladder
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
innervation: plexus vesicalis 2,plexus vesicalis 1
syntopy: Large Intestine,ileum,prostata 1,prostata 2
en_description:
  - the bottom part of the bladder
  - in males, it is in close proximity to the prostate and rectum
  - in female, it is close to the vagina

blood_supply:
  arteria vesicalis inferior_l,arteriae vesicales superiores_l,arteria vesicalis inferior_r,arteriae vesicales superiores_r,plexus venosus vesicalis_l.plexus venosus vesicalis_r,plexus venosus prostaticus_l,plexus venosus prostaticus_r,,vena dorsalis profunda penis


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: External structures of urinary bladder
parent: External structures of urinary bladder
memorix_page: 231
object_id: cervix vesicae
latin: cervix vesicae
en: Neck of bladder
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
innervation: plexus vesicalis 2,plexus vesicalis 1
syntopy: Large Intestine,ileum,prostata 1,prostata 2
en_description:
  - is located on the inferior surface of the bladder and is continuous with the urethra
  - in males, it prevents semen from flowing into the bladder during ejaculation

blood_supply:
  arteria vesicalis inferior_l,arteriae vesicales superiores_l,arteria vesicalis inferior_r,arteriae vesicales superiores_r,plexus venosus vesicalis_l.plexus venosus vesicalis_r,plexus venosus prostaticus_l,plexus venosus prostaticus_r,,vena dorsalis profunda penis


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: External structures of urinary bladder
parent: External structures of urinary bladder
memorix_page: 231
object_id: apex vesicae,apex vesicae f
latin: apex vesicae
en: Apex of bladder
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
innervation: plexus vesicalis 2,plexus vesicalis 1
syntopy: Large Intestine,ileum,prostata 1,prostata 2
en_description:
  - directed towards the pubic symphysis
  - in the empty bladder, it is located right behind the pubic symphysis
  - in the full bladder, it usually extends above the pubic symphysis

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 263 characters]


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: External structures of urinary bladder
parent: External structures of urinary bladder
memorix_page: 231
object_id: ligamentum umbilicale medianum,ligamentum umbilicale medianum f
latin: ligamentum umbilicale medianum
en: Median umbilical ligament
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a ligament extending from the apex of the bladder to the umbilicus on the anterior abdominal wall between the transversal fascia and parietal peritoneum


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Internal structures
parent: Internal structures
memorix_page: 231
object_id: corpus vesicae,!fundus vesicae
latin: ostia ureterum
en: Ureteric orifices
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: b7bd2a
hit_position: -0.32400,1.76565,-0.95358
hit_normal: -0.45119,-1.03019,13.33269
body_rotation: 356.39690,2.06789,359.87000
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - slit-like openings for the ureters in the bladder wall
  - there are no sphincter muscles around these orifices


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Internal structures
parent: Internal structures
memorix_page: 231
object_id: fundus vesicae,cervix vesicae,!corpus vesicae
latin: trigonum vesicae
en: Trigone of bladder
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 20b671
hit_position: -0.04589,1.27626,-0.66780
hit_normal: -2.44406,10.12971,4.87504
body_rotation: 54.99997,42.47487,36.86819
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a triangle-like area in the infero-posterior part of the bladder
  - the ureteric orifices and the internal urethral orifice form the three corners of the trigone
  - its mucosa is not folded
  - in female, it projects on the anterior wall of the vagina as the trigonal area of Pawlik (area trigonalis Pawliki)


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.1
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Internal structures
parent: ostium urethrae internum
memorix_page: 231
object_id: fundus vesicae,cervix vesicae,!corpus vesicae
latin: uvula vesicae
en: Uvula of bladder
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: d9c24b
hit_position: -0.06663,1.19150,-0.38531
hit_normal: -1.79778,7.69149,2.82818
body_rotation: 52.15992,56.11926,49.62633
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a mucous fold in the posterior part of the internal urethral orifice
  - in males, it is located close to the middle lobe of the prostate


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Regional anatomy
parent: Spaces, fasciae, septa
memorix_page: 231
latin: fascia vesicoumbilicalis Delbeti
en: Vesicoumbilical fascia of Delbet
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a fascia located between the medial umbilical ligaments and median umbilical ligament in the shape of a triangle
  - extends to the umbilicus and may contain the urinary bladder in its full state


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Regional anatomy
parent: Spaces, fasciae, septa
memorix_page: 231
latin: spatium paravesicale
en: Paravesical space
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a space surrounding the urinary bladder inside the pelvic cavity between the urinary bladder and pelvic walls


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 9.1
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Regional anatomy
parent: septum rectovesicale Denonvilliersi
memorix_page: 231
latin: septum vesicovaginale
en: Vesico-vaginal septum
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - an plate of connective tissue between the urinary bladder and the vagina with the adjacent cervix of the uterus


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Involved muscles of bladder
parent: Urinary bladder muscles
memorix_page: 232
object_id: fundus vesicae,cervix vesicae,!corpus vesicae
latin: musculus detrusor vesicae
en: Detrusor (muscle)
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 248e1c
hit_position: -0.75155,1.97635,-0.01338
hit_normal: -8.26629,6.93679,-8.53420
body_rotation: 342.54030,124.38670,23.67299
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - three layers of smooth muscle (inner plexiform, middle circular and external longitudinal layer) innervated by the parasympathetic system


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Involved muscles of bladder
parent: Urinary bladder muscles
memorix_page: 232
object_id: !fundus vesicae,cervix vesicae,corpus vesicae
latin: musculus sphincter vesicae
en: Sphincter vesicae (muscle)
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 3337b1
hit_position: -0.26274,1.16296,-0.24871
hit_normal: -8.16884,4.12568,7.10158
body_rotation: 13.77222,49.57915,15.61654
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - a single layer of circular smooth muscle extending around the neck of the bladder innervated by the sympathetic system
  - in male, prevents semen from flowing into the bladder during ejaculation


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Involved muscles of bladder
parent: Urinary bladder muscles
memorix_page: 232
object_id: fundus vesicae,cervix vesicae,!corpus vesicae
latin: musculi trigoni vesicae
en: Trigonal muscles
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: a91949
hit_position: -0.51781,1.52529,-0.76858
hit_normal: 2.44568,13.79406,4.96873
body_rotation: 53.43915,299.55140,305.21640
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - bundles of smooth muscle located in the trigone of bladder, organised in a loop-like fashion
  - this enables them to control the opening and closure of the internal urethral orifice and urethral orifices


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Involved muscles of bladder
parent: Muscles surrounding the urethra
en_description: - the external sphincter is composed of striated muscle tissue
memorix_page: 232
object_id: detrusor apron
latin: musculus sphincter urethrae externus
en: External urethral sphincter
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
general_description:
  <b>The external urethral sphincter </b>is predominantly composed of slow-twitch muscle fibres that are capable of long-lasting contraction, maintaining closure of the urethra.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The external urethral sphincter in males </b>is the main mechanism for providing continence. During prostate and urinary bladder operations, it may be damaged and can cause urinary incontinence.


system: urogenital
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Vascular supply
memorix_page: 232
en: Arteries
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - superior vesical arteries (aa. vesicales superiores) from the umbilical artery
  - inferior vesical artery (a. vesicalis inferior) from the internal iliac artery
  - vesical branches (rr. vesicales) from the surrounding arteries (obturator, inferior gluteal, uterine and vaginal arteries)


system: urogenital
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Vascular supply
memorix_page: 232
en: Veins
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - vesical venous plexus (plexus venosus vesicalis) via the vesical veins into the internal iliac vein
  - connections with the prostatic/vaginal venous plexus and pudendal plexus of Santorini


system: urogenital
main_group: Urinary bladder
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Vascular supply
memorix_page: 232
en: Lymphatic drainage
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - paravesical nodes (nodi lymphoidei paravesicales), which drain to the common iliac, external and internal iliac nodes


system: urogenital
main_group: Testis
memorix_page: 240
latin: Testis
en: Testis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  During prenatal development of the testes, they originate <b>in the lumbar region </b>and <b>descend through the retroperitoneal space and inguinal canal to reach the scrotum</b>. The layers of the abdominal wall form the layers of scrotum as the testes passes through them. <b>The testicular vessels </b>descend with the testes, hence <b>the origin of these arteries</b><b>in lumbar region </b>of the abdomen. <b>Lymphatic drainage </b>is similarly directed to the <b>lumbar nodes</b>. Testosterone and spermatozoa are produced in the testes.


system: urogenital
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Longitudinal sections of testes
parent: Testis
en: Longitudinal sections of testes
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
en_description:
  <b>The testes are a pair of genital glands </b>located outside the abdominopelvic cavity <b>in the scrotum</b>.

general_description:
  The functional tissue of the testis is its medulla with the seminiferous tubuli <i>(tubuli seminiferi).</i>

  <b>Orchis </b>is the Greek term for testis.

  <b>The gubernaculum testis </b>is a thick band of connective tissue that originates from the caudal part of the urogenital fold <i>(plica urogenitalis). </i>It is attached to the mesenchyme of the genital swellings on both sides of the urogenital membrane. Due to its firm attachment to the scrotum, it directs the testis during its descent.

  <b>The tunica albuginea </b>is thickened on the posterior surface of the testis where it pierces the parenchyma of the testis and forms the mediastinum testis.

  <b>The hilum of the testis </b>is a slit-like area on the posterior surface of the testis where the testicular vessels enter and the efferent ductules leave the testis.

  <b>There are 200-300 lobules in the testis.</b>

clinical_notes:
  <b>The appendix testis </b>(hydatid of Morgagni) is a vestigial remnant of the paramesonaphric duct, present at the upper pole of the testis. It can undergo a torsion, causing acute one-sided testicular pain.

  <b>Orchidectomy </b>is a surgical removal of the testis.<b>Orchidopexy </b>describes a surgical treatment of cryptorchidism. It is a procedure to move an undescended testis to its proper place in the scrotum. 

  Orchidopexy should be performed within the first six years of life, otherwise the risk of infertility and testicular tumors increases.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Testis
sub_group: External structure of testis
parent: External structure of testis
memorix_page: 240
latin: extremitas superior
en: Upper pole
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 3d1da3
hit_position: -0.58953,-0.95502,2.08014
hit_normal: -2.23941,8.43538,10.29184
body_rotation: 37.74781,14.83604,9.21084
tags: genital
object_id:
  tunica albuginea testis laterale 1,tunica albuginea testis mediale 1,!tunica vaginalis testis lateralis 1,!tunica vaginalis testis medialis 1,!musculus cremaster 1 uri,!fascia spermatica externa 1,!fascia spermatica interna 1


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Testis
sub_group: External structure of testis
parent: External structure of testis
en_description: - the posterior margin facing the epididymis
memorix_page: 240
latin: margo posterior
en: Posterior border
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 1d50a3
hit_position: -0.78790,-1.53172,1.68675
hit_normal: -11.71184,0.37209,-17.61975
body_rotation: 359.53310,143.39090,0.34685
tags: genital
object_id:
  tunica albuginea testis laterale 1,tunica albuginea testis mediale 1,!tunica vaginalis testis lateralis 1,!tunica vaginalis testis medialis 1,!musculus cremaster 1 uri,!fascia spermatica externa 1,!fascia spermatica interna 1,!epididymis laterale 1,!epididymis mediale 1


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Testis
sub_group: External structure of testis
parent: External structure of testis
memorix_page: 240
latin: tunica vaginalis testis
en: Tunica vaginalis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - originally a part of peritoneum (processus vaginalis peritonei) that became one of the layers of the scrotum during the descent of the testis
  - is composed of two layers with a slender slit between them


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Internal structure of testis
parent: Internal structure of testis
memorix_page: 240
en: Capsule of the testis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 5
color: e4734b
hit_position: -0.43385,-1.57995,1.88275
hit_normal: -9.73560,-0.33296,4.79692
body_rotation: 358.62630,62.71857,357.33850
tags: genital
object_id:
  tunica albuginea testis mediale 1,!tunica albuginea testis laterale 1,!tunica vaginalis testis lateralis 1,!musculus cremaster 1 uri,!fascia spermatica externa 1,!fascia spermatica interna 1


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Internal structure of testis
parent: Ducts of the testis
memorix_page: 240
latin: mediastinum testis
en: Mediastinum of the testis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: d4df3d
hit_position: -0.53652,-1.33169,1.70105
hit_normal: -8.34579,-0.88560,3.71195
body_rotation: 357.68050,64.58899,355.13060
tags: genital
en_description:
  - an area close to the hilum of the testis filled with connective tissue where the rete testis and efferent ductules coalesce

object_id:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 190 characters]


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Descent of the testis
parent: Testis
memorix_page: 241
en: Descent of the testis
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
en_description:
  Descent of the testis from their place of their origin in the lumbar region to the scrotum takes place during intrauterine development:


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Descent of the testis
parent: Descent of the testis
memorix_page: 241
en: 3rd month
cell_type: 4
tags: genital
en_description:
  - unequal growth of the trunk and the pulling force of the gubernaculum begins to move the testis caudally from their position at L1-L2
  - the testicular artery (from the aorta), testicular vein (to the inferior vena cava) and lymphatic vessels follow the testis during its descent
  - the testis is located in the iliac fossa by the end of the 3rd month


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.3
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Descent of the testis
parent: Descent of the testis
memorix_page: 241
en: 6th month
cell_type: 4
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the testis passes through the inguinal canal and pulls the peritoneum (which becomes the vaginal process) fasciae of the abdominal muscles and muscle bundles of the transversus abdominis and internal oblique along with it
  - these structures become the layers of the scrotum and the cremaster muscle
  - vessels, nerves and the ductus deferens form the contents of the spermatic cord


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.4
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Descent of the testis
parent: Descent of the testis
memorix_page: 241
en: 8th month
cell_type: 4
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the testis should be fully descended
  - the arrangement of the scrotal layers are fully formed
  - the vaginal process of the peritoneum separates completely from the abdominal peritoneum and closes to form the tunica vaginalis


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.5
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Descended testis
parent: Descent of the testis
memorix_page: 241
en: Descended testis
cell_type: 4
tags: genital
en_description:
  Descended testes (testes in situ) is an important sign of maturity of the newborn.
  Spermatogenesis is only possible in testes positioned inside the scrotum.
  Descent of the testes should be complete by the end of the 3rd postnatal month.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Arterial supply
memorix_page: 241
en: Testicular artery
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  (from the abdominal aorta),
  partially: artery to ductus deferens (from the internal iliac artery) and cremasteric artery (from the inferior epigastric artery)


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Function
parent: Testis
memorix_page: 241
en: Function
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
en_description:
  Spermatozoa production occurs in the seminiferous epithelium. Sertoli cells support, isolate and supply spermatozoa precursor cells (spermatogonia, spermatocytes and spermatids) with nutrients. They also maintain high levels of testosterone in the seminiferous epithelium, which is necessary for the proper development of spermatozoa.
  Testosterone production takes place in Leydig cells, located in the interstitium of the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone is the main male sex hormone (androgen). It is responsible for male primary and secondary sex characteristics.


system: urogenital
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Clinical notes
parent: Clinical notes
memorix_page: 241
en: Cryptorchism
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  (undescended testis, retention of the testis)
  - failure of descent of the testis and its subsequent absence in the scrotum


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Clinical notes
parent: Cryptorchism
memorix_page: 241
en: Dystopic testis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - retention of the testis anywhere on its course from the abdomen at level of L1-2 to the scrotum
  - is most commonly located within the inguinal canal


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Testis
sub_group: Clinical notes
parent: Cryptorchism
memorix_page: 241
en: Ectopic testis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a testis located in a position outside of the course of its physiological descent to the scrotum (e.g. lesser pelvis, perineum, above the pubic symphysis)


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Epididymis
sub_group: Longitudinal sections of epididymis
parent: Epididymis
en: Longitudinal sections of epididymis
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
en_description:
  The epididymis is a <b>highly convoluted duct</b>. It is attached to the posterior margin of the testis and inferiorly to the scrotum. The tail of the epididymis <b>continues as the ductus deferens</b>. Spermatozoa spend 10-12 of their total 72 days of maturation within the epididymis. The epididymis serves as <b>a reservoir of spermatozoa</b>, where they mature <b>and gain the capacity to move and fertilise the ovum</b>. It also provides nutrition for the spermatozoa.

general_description:
  <b>The pampiniform plexus and </b>the testicular veins work as a countercurrent blood cooling system.

  <b>The epithelium of the duct of the epididymis </b>is pseudostratified columnar with stereocilia.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Varicocele </b>is a term describing dilation of the pampiniform plexus inside the spermatic cord. In young males, the cause remains unknown. In older men, varicocele may arise as a result of impeded blood flow caused by various renal diseases and tumors. It is one of the most common causes of male infertility, as the impeded blood flow results in an increase in temperature inside the testis. Varicocele occurs more commonly on the left side, since the left testicular vein drains into the left renal vein perpendicularly.<b>

  The appendix of the epididymis </b>(pedunculated hydatid) is a small stalked sac on the head of the epididymis. It is derived from the mesonephric duct.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Epididymis
sub_group: External structure of epididymis
parent: External structure of epididymis
en_description: - the cranial part of the head of the epididymis is formed by the efferent ductules
memorix_page: 242
latin: caput epididymidis
en: Head of epididymis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: c54787
hit_position: -0.67128,-0.66567,1.85767
hit_normal: -11.75119,0.07391,6.70105
body_rotation: 1.24871,58.51079,2.03755
tags: genital
object_id:
  epididymis mediale 1,epididymis laterale 1,!tunica vaginalis testis lateralis 1,!tunica vaginalis testis medialis 1,!musculus cremaster 1 uri,!fascia spermatica externa 1,!fascia spermatica interna 1


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.4
main_group: Epididymis
sub_group: External structure of epididymis
parent: External structure of epididymis
memorix_page: 242
latin: sinus epididymidis
en: Sinus of epididymis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a peritoneal fold
  - the visceral layer of the tunica vaginalis ( tunica vaginalis testis) between the testis and epididymis


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.3
main_group: Epididymis
sub_group: External structure of epididymis
parent: Epididymis supporting ligaments
memorix_page: 242
object_id: ligamentum scrotale
latin: ligamentum scrotale
en: Scrotal ligament
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - connects the epididymis and testis to the caudal aspect of the scrotum
  - a remnant of the gubernaculum testis


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.2
main_group: Epididymis
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Vascular supply
memorix_page: 242
en: Venous drainage
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  the pampiniform plexus (to the testicular veins, which drain to the inferior vena cava on the right side and to the left renal vein on the left side)


system: urogenital
main_group: Ductus deferens
memorix_page: 243
latin: Ductus deferens
en: Ductus deferens
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The ductus deferens is a tubular organ <b>that transports spermatozoa from the epididymis to the prostatic urethra </b>by peristaltic contractions. It passes <b>from the scrotum through the spermatic cord and inguinal canal </b>into the lesser pelvis, where it <b>crosses the ureter </b>and <b>enters the prostate</b>.

general_description:
  <b>If uncoiled, the ductules of the epididymis </b>would reach a length of six meters.

  <b>The vas efferens </b>is an obsolete synonym for the ductus deferens.

  <b>The epithelium of the efferent ductules </b>is simple cuboidal with variable cell height. It contains kinocilia.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Ductus deferens
sub_group: Parts of ductus deferens
parent: Parts of ductus deferens
memorix_page: 243
object_id: ductus deferens pars inguinalis
latin: pars inguinalis
en: Inguinal part
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ductus deferens
tags: genital
en_description:
  -<indent=3em>is located in the inguinal canal (canalis inguinalis)</indent>
  -<indent=3em>the ductus deferens enters the inguinal canal through the superficial inguinal ring, courses through the canal ventral to the inferior epigastric vessels and enters the pelvis through the deep inguinal ring</indent>


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Ductus deferens
sub_group: Parts of ductus deferens
parent: Parts of ductus deferens
memorix_page: 243
object_id: ductus deferens pars pelvica
latin: pars pelvica
en: Pelvic part
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ductus deferens
tags: genital
en_description:
  -<indent=3em>courses through the lesser pelvis, close to the urinary bladder and fuses with the excretory duct of the seminal vesicle</indent>


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Ductus deferens
sub_group: Parts of ductus deferens
parent: Parts of ductus deferens
memorix_page: 243
object_id: ductus ejaculatorius
latin: ductus ejaculatorius
en: Ejaculatory duct
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ductus deferens
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a common duct formed by the union of the ductus deferens with the excretory duct of the seminal vesicle
  - enters the prostate and joins the prostatic urethra at the seminal colliculus


system: urogenital
main_group: Spermatic cord
memorix_page: 243
latin: Funiculus spermaticus
en: Spermatic cord
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The spermatic cord is a <b>tough rope-like structure that contains the ductus deferens and several vessels and nerves</b>. It courses from <b>the scrotum to the inguinal canal</b>. The venous pampiniform plexus lowers the temperature inside the spermatic cord, which is necessary for the proper maturation of spermatozoa. The layers of the abdominal wall continue over the spermatic cord and the scrotum, forming their coverings.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Spermatic cord
sub_group: Contents
parent: Contents
memorix_page: 243
latin: plexus pampiniformis
en: Pampiniform plexus
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a venous plexus conveying blood from the testis and epididymis to the inferior vena cava on the right and to the left renal vein on the left


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Spermatic cord
sub_group: Coverings of spermatic cord
parent: Coverings of spermatic cord
en_description: - a continuation of the superficial abdominal fascia
memorix_page: 243
object_id: fascia spermatica externa 1
latin: fascia spermatica externa
en: External spermatic fascia
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
blood_supply:
  rami scrotales,arteria pudenda externa profunda,vena pudenda externa,venae scrotae sposteriores,ramis scrotales anteriores arteriae pudendae externae profundae,venae scrotales anteriores

innervation:
  nervus ilioinguinalis,nervi scrotales posteriores,ramus genitalis nervi genitofemoralis,nervus genitofemoralis


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 9
main_group: Spermatic cord
sub_group: Coverings of spermatic cord
parent: Coverings of spermatic cord
memorix_page: 243
object_id: musculus cremaster 1 uri
latin: musculus cremaster
en: Cremaster
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a skeletal muscle that pulls the scrotum towards the abdominal wall
  - consists of muscle bundles from the internal oblique and transversus abdominis muscles
  - the cremasteric fascia (fascia cremasterica) covers the cremaster and its muscle bundles

blood_supply:
  rami scrotales,arteria pudenda externa profunda,vena pudenda externa,venae scrotae sposteriores,ramis scrotales anteriores arteriae pudendae externae profundae,venae scrotales anteriores

innervation:
  nervus ilioinguinalis,nervi scrotales posteriores,ramus genitalis nervi genitofemoralis,nervus genitofemoralis


system: urogenital
main_group: Seminal glands
memorix_page: 244
latin: Glandulae vesiculosae
en: Seminal glands
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The seminal glands are <b>located behind the urinary bladder above the prostate</b>. Each seminal gland is a simple tubular gland, <b>composed of a single duct that has multiple convolutions</b>. The seminal glands produce <b>50-80 % of the ejaculate</b>. The excretory duct of the seminal gland joins the ductus deferens to form <b>the ejaculatory duct </b>that empties into the urethra.

general_description:
  <b>Glandulae seminales</b>, vesiculae seminales, seminal vesicles and vesicular glands are alternative terms for the seminal glands.

  <b>Verumontanum </b>is an obsolete term for the seminal colliculus.


  <b>The seminal glands </b>develop from the ductus deferens. They are 4-5 cm long, 17-20 mm wide and 6-9 mm thick. When uncoiled, the length of the simple tubular gland is 10-15 cm.

  <b>Seminal glands produce </b>an alkaline substance that contains fructose (a nutrient for spermatozoa), globulin proteins and prostaglandines (hormone-like compounds that stimulate the smooth muscle of the female genital organs).

  <b>The seminal glands are lined with </b>pseudostratified columnar epithelium.

  <b>The prostatic glands are lined with</b> cuboidal to pseudostratified columnar epithelium (depending on the secretion activity of the gland).

  <b>Proportion of gland tissue in the different histological zones of the prostate: </b>Peripheral zone 75 % Central and transitional zone 20 % Aglandular zone (isthmus) and periurethral zone 5 %.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Seminal glands
sub_group: Seminal gland and its ducts
parent: Seminal gland and its ducts
en_description: - the seminal vesicle is a paired accessory sex gland of the male
memorix_page: 244
object_id: glandula vesiculosa 1
latin: glandula vesiculosa
en: Seminal gland
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
innervation: plexus venosus prostaticus
blood_supply:
  arteria ductus deferentis,arteria vesicalis inferior,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria rectalis media 2,plexus venosus vesicalis,plexus venosus prostaticus


system: urogenital
main_group: Bulbo-urethral glands
sub_group: The gland
parent: Glandulae bulbourethrales
memorix_page: 244
en: The gland
cell_type: 5
tags: genital
en_description:
  The bulbourethral glands are a pair of <b>accessory genital glands that empty into the ampulla urethrae</b>. These pea-sized glands are located on the inferior surface of the deep transverse perineal muscle. They produce a viscous liquid that lubricates the internal surface of the urethra during ejaculation.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Prostate
sub_group: Longitudinal sections of prostate
parent: Prostata
en: Longitudinal sections of prostate
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
en_description:
  The prostate is the <b>largest male genital gland</b>. It produces <b>30 % of ejaculate fluid</b>. It is located <b>subperitoneally, inferior to the urinary bladder</b>. <b>The urethra courses through the prostate </b>along with the paired ejaculatory ducts, the common duct for the epididymis and the seminal glands.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Per rectum palpation of the prostate </b>is a standard part of the clinical examination, performed by palpating the prostate through the anterior wall of the rectum.

  <b>The zones of the prostate vary in </b>shape, in proportion of fibromuscular stroma and in their tendency to develop disease. The different zones of the prostate can be visualised by transrectal ultrasound and distinguish in the magnetic resonance imaging.

  <b>Benign prostate hyperplasia </b>is characterized by an increase in number of the submucosal prostate glands. This leads to the enlargement of transistional zone, which can lead to obstruction of urinary flow. The enlarged transitional zone compresses the fibromuscular stroma of the peripheral zone, eventually transforming it into the “surgical” capsule of the prostate. This allows surgical enucleation of transistional zone, sparing the peripheral part.

  <b>Carcinoma of the prostate </b>is a malignant neoplasia arising in the glandular epithelium of the peripheral zone or, less commonly, in the central or transistional zones.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Prostate
sub_group: Longitudinal sections of prostate
parent: Longitudinal sections of prostate
object_id: prostata 1
en: Left section of the prostata
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
blood_supply: arteria vesicalis inferior,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria rectalis media 2
innervation: plexus venosus prostaticus
syntopy:
  ductus deferens pars inguinalis,ampulla ductus deferentis,glandula vesiculosa 1,detrusor apron,fascia penis superficialis 2,Large Intestine,fundus vesicae,fascia penis superficialis 1


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.4
main_group: Prostate
sub_group: External structure of prostate
parent: External structure of prostate
memorix_page: 245
object_id: prostata 1,prostata 2,!detrusor apron
latin: facies anterior
en: Anterior surface
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 4e6cd9
hit_position: -0.07054,1.08715,0.10888
hit_normal: -0.51242,9.35507,9.89275
body_rotation: 43.10491,355.02190,356.59360
tags: genital
en_description:
  - faces the pubic symphysis, is attached to the pubic symphysis by the puboprostaticus muscle and puboprostatic ligaments


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.2.2
main_group: Prostate
sub_group: Internal structure of prostate*3
parent: Division of the prostate
memorix_page: 245
object_id: prostata 1,!prostata 2,!detrusor apron,!ligamentum puboprostaticum 1
latin: zona superomedialis/centralis
en: Central/superomedial zone
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: bd386f
hit_position: -0.00238,0.76840,-0.00461
hit_normal: 9.85657,-0.32563,-1.73917
body_rotation: 0.48587,258.30130,2.34510
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the internal wedge-shaped area around the openings of the ejaculatory ducts and the prostatic utricle


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Prostate
sub_group: Internal structure of prostate*3
parent: Internal structure of prostate*3
en_description: - an elevated crest on the posterior surface of the urethra
memorix_page: 245
latin: crista urethralis
en: Urethral crest
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: dc60d3
hit_position: -0.00379,0.76122,-0.07199
hit_normal: 7.34644,-0.48189,-0.39086
body_rotation: 0.32666,266.08980,4.76807
tags: genital
object_id:
  prostata 1,!prostata 2,!pars prostatica urethrae 1,!pars prostatica urethrae 2,!detrusor apron,!ligamentum puboprostaticum 1


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Prostate
sub_group: Internal structure of prostate*3
parent: Internal structure of prostate*3
memorix_page: 245
latin: sinus prostaticus
en: Prostatic sinus
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 34cbab
hit_position: -0.00276,0.75441,-0.02307
hit_normal: 8.10013,-0.67735,-1.07964
body_rotation: 0.84278,261.94180,5.93131
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a pair of pits on both sides of the urethral crest where the prostatic ductules (ducts of prostatic glands) open

object_id:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 124 characters]


system: urogenital
main_group: Scrotum
memorix_page: 246
latin: Scrotum
en: Scrotum
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The scrotum is a sac <b>located on the outside of the body</b>, which contains the testis and epididymis. The temperature inside the scrotum is <b>2-4 degrees lower than core body temperature</b>. This ensures optimal spermatogenesis. <b>Contraction of the cremaster muscle pulls the scrotum upwards, towards the perineum</b>.

general_description:
  <b>The cremasteric reflex </b>is triggered by tactile stimulation of the internal surface of the thigh, which leads to contraction of the cremaster. The afferent limb is formed by the somatosensory fibres of the femoral branch of the genitofemoral nerve. The efferent limb is formed by the motor fibres of the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve.

  <b>Cavum serosum scroti </b>is an obsolete term for the vaginal cavity of the testis.

clinical_notes:
  <b>A hydrocele </b>is an enlargement of the scrotum caused by accumulation of fluid inside the vaginal cavity of the testis. <b>A congenital hydrocele </b>results from a persistent communication between the peritoneal cavity and the layers of the scrotum via a patent vaginal process of peritoneum. <b>An acquired hydrocele </b>can occur as result of inflammation of the testis or epididymis or from a tumour. However, in the majority of cases, its origin remains unknown.

  <b>A scrotal hernia </b>arises due to a persistent communication between the peritoneal cavity and vaginal cavity of the testis (or the vaginal process of the peritoneum). An intestinal loop enter the scrotum.


system: urogenital
main_group: Scrotum
sub_group: External structure
parent: External structure
memorix_page: 246
latin: septum scroti
en: Septum of scrotum
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a septum composed of connective tissue that separates the scrotum into two independent cavities, each containing one testis


system: urogenital
main_group: Scrotum
sub_group: External structure
parent: External structure
memorix_page: 246
latin: raphe scroti
en: Raphe of scrotum
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a seam-like line in the place where the genital (labioscrotal) swellings merged during development, right over the septum of the scrotum,
  - continues ventrally as the raphe of the penis and dorsally as the perineal raphe


system: urogenital
main_group: Scrotum
sub_group: External structure
parent: External structure
memorix_page: 246
object_id: ligamentum scrotale
latin: ligamentum scrotale
en: Scrotal ligament
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a remnant of the gubernaculum, a cord of connective tissue attaching the lower pole of the testis and tail of the epididymis to the floor of the scrotum

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 186 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 110 characters]


system: urogenital
main_group: Scrotum
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Vascular supply
memorix_page: 246
en: Venous drainage
cell_type: 5
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the anterior scrotal veins, which drain into the great saphenous vein
  - the posterior scrotal veins, which drain into the internal pudendal vein


system: urogenital
main_group: Penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: Penis
en: Penis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  <b>The penis </b>is an external genital male organ with <b>both excretory and copulative functions</b>. It is formed from 3 erectile bodies and the urethra, which courses throughout its entire length.

general_description:
  <b>The helicine arteries </b>(<i>arteriae helicinae</i>) are convoluted in a flaccid penis and straighten during erection.

  <b>The tunica albuginea </b>of the corpora cavernosa is denser than the tunica albuginea of the corpus spongiosum.

  <b>The bulbospongiosus </b>is attached to the corpus spongiosum in the area of the bulb of the penis. It aids in emptying of the urethra and its rhythmical contractions contribute to the process of ejaculation.

  <b>Balanos </b>is the Greek term for the bulb of penis. <b>Posthe </b>is the Greek term for foreskin

clinical_notes:
  <b>Cabanas lymph node </b>(<i>nodus lymphoideus inguinalis superﬁcialis superomedialis</i>) is the sentinel node of the skin of the penis.

  <b>In a suspected testicular tumor,</b> a diagnostic biopsy is contraindicated due to the risk of dissemination of tumour cells in the layers of the scrotum.

  <b>Balanoposthitis </b>is inflammation of the mucosa of the bulb of the penis and the internal layer of the foreskin.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: External structure of penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: crura penis
en: Crura of penis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 4b95b1
hit_position: -0.44142,-0.01091,0.61745
hit_normal: -16.76451,-13.85815,6.47046
body_rotation: 348.34160,73.48783,325.71890
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a paired internal part of the corpora cavernosa
  - attaches to the phallic crest of the inferior pubic ramus and to the pubic symphysis

object_id:
  tunica albuginea 1,tunica albuginea 2,septum penis,!fascia penis superficialis 1,!fascia penis superficialis 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: External structure of penis
en_description: - an unpaired dilated part of the corpus spongiosum underneath the perineum
memorix_page: 247
latin: bulbus penis
en: Bulb of penis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 8acd71
hit_position: -0.23127,-0.31790,0.08399
hit_normal: -15.41290,-13.38767,-17.20250
body_rotation: 19.73257,132.70550,339.90660
tags: genital
object_id:
  tunica albuginea spongiosi 1,tunica albuginea spongiosi 2,!fascia penis superficialis 1,!fascia penis superficialis 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.1
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: corpus penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: dorsum penis, facies dorsalis
en: Dorsum of penis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: d7a01f
hit_position: -0.10398,-1.10091,3.47174
hit_normal: -1.84703,0.34160,30.89547
body_rotation: 0.00000,0.00000,0.00000
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the "anterior” surface in a flaccid penis in the anatomical position, the upper to posterior surface in an erect penis

object_id:
  tunica albuginea 1,tunica albuginea 2,septum penis,!fascia penis superficialis 1,!fascia penis superficialis 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.2
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: corpus penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: facies urethralis
en: Urethral surface
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: e858d0
hit_position: -0.08006,-0.49995,2.63085
hit_normal: 0.70162,-7.89733,-28.35856
body_rotation: 15.30401,178.73610,359.66640
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the "posterior“ surface in a flaccid penis facing the scrotum
  - the urethra courses the penis right beneath the urethral surface

object_id:
  tunica albuginea spongiosi 1,tunica albuginea spongiosi 2,!fascia penis superficialis 1,!fascia penis superficialis 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.3
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: corpus penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: raphe penis
en: Raphe of penis
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 0cdd9a
hit_position: -0.03688,-1.97373,2.73104
hit_normal: -0.05685,-16.86147,-27.23824
body_rotation: 35.67965,178.13980,358.91480
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a longitudinal seam-like line on the urethral surface
  - a developmental remnant of the genital/labioscrotal swellings

object_id:
  tunica albuginea spongiosi 1,tunica albuginea spongiosi 2,!fascia penis superficialis 1,!fascia penis superficialis 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.1
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: Glans penis
en_description: - the most distal segment of the corpus spongiosum, the location of the external urethral orifice
memorix_page: 247
object_id: glans penis 1
latin: Glans penis 1
en: Left section of the penis head
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
blood_supply:
  vena dorsalis profunda penis,venae dorsale superficiales penis,arteria urethralis,arteria profunda penis,arteria dorsalis penis,arteria bulbi penis

innervation:
  nervus dorsalis penis_l,nervi cavernosi penis 2,nervi cavernosi penis 1,nervus dorsalis penis_r,nervus ilioinguinalis_l,nervus ilioinguinalis_r


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.4
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: Glans penis
en_description: - a groove separating the glans from the body of the penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: collum glandis
en: Neck of glans
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
color: 752077
tags: genital
object_id:
  tunica albuginea 1,tunica albuginea 2,septum penis,tunica albuginea spongiosi 1,tunica albuginea spongiosi 2,!fascia penis superficialis 1,!fascia penis superficialis 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.7
main_group: Penis
sub_group: External structure of penis
parent: Glans penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: frenulum preputii
en: Frenulum
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a ventrally located skin crease
  - a transition between the skin of the glans and the skin of the prepuce


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Penis
sub_group: Internal structure of penis
parent: Internal structure of penis
memorix_page: 247
latin: Corpora cavernosa penis
en: Corpora cavernosa
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - erectile bodies that erect the penis when engorged with blood
  - the ischiocavernosus attaches to them, contributing to the process of ejaculation


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.3
main_group: Penis
sub_group: Internal structure of penis
parent: Corpora cavernosa penis
memorix_page: 247
en: Cavernous spaces and trabeculae of corpora cavernosa
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - spaces that fill with venous blood during erection
  - little cavities inside the erectile bodies lined with endothelium, fenestrated by trabeculae


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Penis
sub_group: Internal structure of penis
parent: Internal structure of penis
latin: Corpus spongiosum penis
en: Corpus spongiosum penis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the unpaired erectile body beneath the urethral surface encompassing the spongy part of the male urethra; it constitutes the bulb and glans of the penis, and the body of the penis along with the corpora cavernosa


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 12
main_group: Penis
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Venous drainage
memorix_page: 247
latin: Vena dorsalis profunda penis
en: Deep dorsal vein of penis
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - an unpaired vein that bifurcates into the pudendal plexus of Santorini (and further to the prostatic venous plexus), and into the internal pudendal vein which converges into the internal iliac vein


system: urogenital
main_group: Penis
sub_group: Vascular supply
parent: Vascular supply
memorix_page: 247
en: Lymphatic drainage
cell_type: 5
tags: genital
en_description:
  the superficial inguinal nodes; glans of penis: the deep inguinal nodes, external iliac nodes; corpora cavernosa, corpus spongiosum, urethra: the internal iliac nodes


system: urogenital
main_group: Penis
sub_group: Innervation
parent: Innervation
memorix_page: 247
en: Somatosensory system
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  the ilioinguinal nerve (the skin of the root of the penis), dorsal nerve of the penis from the pudendal nerve


system: urogenital
main_group: Penis
sub_group: Innervation
parent: Innervation
memorix_page: 247
en: Parasympathetic system
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  the cavernous nerves of the penis from the sacral splanchnic nerves via the inferior hypogastric plexus


system: urogenital
main_group: Male urethra
memorix_page: 248
latin: Urethra masculina
en: Male urethra
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The male urethra is <b>the final segment of the male excretory and reproductive systems</b>. The sphincter vesicae prevents <b>retrograde flow of semen into the urinary bladder </b>and prevents the release of urine during ejaculation. Along its course, the male urethra contains <b>constrictions and dilations </b>and <b>two curvatures</b>.

general_description:
  <b>The 20 cm long male urethra </b>is about 5 times longer than the 4 cm long female urethra. However, it is narrower and curved.

  <b>The epithelium of the male urethra</b> varies along it course:
  <b>The intramural part and prostatic urethra </b>above the opening for the ejaculatory ducts are lined with transitional epithelium.
  <b>The caudal part of the prostatic urethra </b>and membranous and spongy urethrae are lined with stratified columnar epithelium.
  <b>The navicular fossa </b>is lined with non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium.
  <b>The external urethral orifice </b>is lined with keratinised stratified squamous epithelium.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Clinically, the urethra </b>can be divided in two parts: the anterior and posterior parts. From the anatomical point of view, the posterior urethra consists of the intramural part, prostatic urethra and membranous urethra. The anterior urethra consists of the spongy urethra.

  <b>Compared to the female urethra</b>, the male urethra is longer and narrower and therefore less prone to infections. However, due to its course, these infections tend to have a worse clinical manifestation.

  <b>After transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) </b>for benign hyperplasia of the prostate, the neck of the urinary bladder remains open during ejaculation. This results in retrograde flow of semen into the urinary bladder, causing the so called &ldquo;dry ejaculation&rdquo;.

  <b>Epispadias </b>is a rare atypical location of the external urethral orifice on the dorsum of the penis (1:30 000)

  <b>Hypospadias </b>is a more common atypical location of the external urethral orifice on the ventral (urethral) surface of the penis (1:300).

  <b>Nitric oxide </b>(NO) relaxes vascular smooth muscle. Drugs for erectile dysfunction, such as sildenafil-Viagra, increase the concentration of NO in the vascular beds of the erectile bodies.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: External structure of male urethra
parent: Segments of male urethra
memorix_page: 248
latin: pars intramuralis
en: Intramural part
cell_type: 0
master_object: Urethra masculina
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a constricted part in the wall of the urinary bladder encircled by the smooth sphincter vesicae (musculus sphincter vesicae), which continues caudally as the smaller internal urethral sphincter


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: External structure of male urethra
parent: Segments of male urethra
memorix_page: 248
latin: pars prostatica urethrae
en: Prostatic urethra
cell_type: 0
master_object: Urethra masculina
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a dilated part inside the prostate
  - two ejaculatory ducts open at the seminal collicle, transporting semen into the urethra


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: External structure of male urethra
parent: Segments of male urethra
memorix_page: 248
latin: pars intermedia/membranacea
en: Membranous urethra / intermediate part of urethra
cell_type: 0
master_object: Urethra masculina
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a constricted part passing through the pelvic floor
  - is surrounded by the striated external urethral sphincter


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: External structure of male urethra
parent: Curvatures
memorix_page: 248
en: Subpubic curvature
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a superior-facing concavity at the transition of the membranous and spongy urethra, impossible to straighten


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 10
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: External structure of male urethra
parent: Sphincters
memorix_page: 248
latin: Musculus sphincter urethrae externus
en: External urethral sphincter
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a strong striated muscle innervated by somatomotor nerve fibres originating in the S2-S4 spinal cord segments


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
parent: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
memorix_page: 248
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en:
  The stimuliare transferred to spinal cord segment S3, where the parasympathetic sacral splanchnic nerves originate and, as the cavernous nerves of the penis, innervate erectile bodies.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
parent: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
memorix_page: 248
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en:
  Under the influence of the parasympathetic system, the intimal thickenings within the helicine arteries diminish, which increases blood flow to the cavernous spaces.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
parent: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
memorix_page: 248
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en:
  Stimulation of sensory nerve endings in the penis leads to activation of the ejaculation center in the spinal cord segments T11–L2 under the influence of the sympathetic system.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
parent: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
memorix_page: 248
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en:
  The sympathetic system contracts the ductus deferens, which transports spermatozoa from the epididymis to the prostatic urethra, where they mix with fluid from prostate and seminal glands.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Male urethra
sub_group: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
parent: Mechanism of erection and ejaculation
memorix_page: 248
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en:
  Concurrently, under the influence of the sympathetic system, the spincter vesicae and internal urethral sphincter contract, preventi ng retrodrade flow of semen into the urinary bladder.


system: urogenital
main_group: Female urethra
latin: urethra feminina
en: Female urethra
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
en_description:
  The female urethra is a 4 cm long, 6-8 cm wide muscular tube connecting the bladder to the external environment, this forming the terminal portion of the urinary tract in the female. Voluntary contraction of the external urethral sphincter prevents urine from leaking out during reflex contraction of the detrusor muscle.

general_description:
  <b>Urinary continence </b>is the ability to keep urine in the bladder and excrete it in a controlled fashion. Urinary incontinence is the lack of this ability. The two main aspects of urinary continence are the position of the urethra and neck of the bladder and the proper function of the urethral sphincters. In females, the sphincter compresses the urethra against the vagina and thus closes it. Stress incontinence is defined as involuntary leakage of urine when the pressure inside the peritoneal
  cavity rises (e.g. during coughing or laughing). Increased intra-abdominal pressure is able to push the urethra and the adjacent neck of the bladder downwards (a condition termed urethral hypermobility). Pressure is thus distributed unevenly; it is higher inside the urinary bladder than in the urethra, which results in urine leakage. A different kind of stress incontinence occurs when the urethra and neck of the bladder are permanently descended into the lesser pelvis, evenat rest. Consequently, the internal urethral sphincter becomes unable to keep urine from escaping the urinary bladder.

  Urinary continence in female is provided by:
  - urethral mucosa and submucosa
  - smooth and striated muscle of the urethra
  - external urethral sphincter, compressor urethrae
  - sphincter urethrovaginalis, levator ani (pubovaginalis)


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Female urethra
sub_group: Parts of female urethra
parent: Parts of female urethra
object_id: urethra feminina externa f 2,!urethra feminina externa f 1
latin: pars perinealis urethrae femininae
en: Perineal part of female urethra
cell_type: 0
color: 5D27BF
hit_position: 0.02199,-0.65815,0.80415
hit_normal: -5.66962,4.67569,2.00301
body_rotation: 350.56080,-126.88230,-12.32915
tags: urinary
en_description:
  - passes through the perineal muscles and the urogenital hiatus (hiatus urogenitalis) of the levator ani


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Female urethra
sub_group: Parts of female urethra
parent: Parts of female urethra
en_description: - protrudes as the urethral papilla (papilla urethralis) in the vestibule (vestibulum vaginae)
object_id: ostium urethrae externum f
latin: ostium urethrae externum
en: External urethral orifice
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
blood_supply: arteria pudenda interna,venae pudendae internae f
innervation: ,plexus vesicalis f 1,plexus vesicalis f 2
syntopy:
  vagina anterior f,ostium urethrae externum f,clitoris f,musculus sphincter uretrae f,urethra feminina externa f 1,urethra feminina externa f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Female urethra
sub_group: Internal female urethra
parent: musculus sphincter urethrae internus
object_id: urethra feminina f 1
latin: musculus sphincter urethrae internus pars sinister
en: Left section of internal female urethra
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
innervation: plexus vesicalis f 1,plexus vesicalis f 2
blood_supply:
  arteria vesicalis inferior f,arteria urethralis f,arteria pudenda interna f,arteria vaginalis f,plexus venosus vesicalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 2,plexus venosus vesicalis f 2,venae pudendae internae f

syntopy:
  vagina anterior f,ostium urethrae externum f,clitoris f,fundus vesicae f,musculus sphincter uretrae f,compressor urethrae f 1,compressor urethrae f 2,sphincter urethrovaginalis f,musculus pubococcygeus,urethra feminina externa f 1,urethra feminina externa f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Female urethra
sub_group: Internal female urethra
parent: musculus sphincter urethrae internus
object_id: urethra feminina f 2
latin: musculus sphincter urethrae internus pars dexter
en: Right section of internal female urethra
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
innervation: plexus vesicalis f 1,plexus vesicalis f 2
blood_supply:
  arteria vesicalis inferior f,arteria urethralis f,arteria pudenda interna f,arteria vaginalis f,plexus venosus vesicalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 2,plexus venosus vesicalis f 2,venae pudendae internae f

syntopy:
  vagina anterior f,ostium urethrae externum f,clitoris f,fundus vesicae f,musculus sphincter uretrae f,compressor urethrae f 1,compressor urethrae f 2,sphincter urethrovaginalis f,musculus pubococcygeus


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
latin: Organa genitalia feminina interna
en: Female internal genital system
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The internal female genital organs include the genital glands (ovaries), uterine tubes, uterus and vagina. The vestibule, labia, female erectile bodies (clitoris and bulb of the vestibule) and mons pubis constitute the external female genital organs.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Ovary
parent: Ovarium
en: Longitudal sections of ovary
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The ovary is the female genital gland (gonad). It is a paired intraperitoneal organ located in the pelvis. The ovary contains oocytes within follicles, undergoing the process of maturation. The ovary produces various steroids and polypeptide hormones.

general_description:
  Oophoron is the Greek term for ovary.

   The adnexa of the uterus is a collective term for the ovary, uterine tube and their peritoneal folds.

clinical_notes:
  Oophorectomy is the surgical removal of the ovary. Salpingectomy is the surgical removal of the uterine tube.

  Salpingo-oophorectomy / adnexectomy is the surgical removal of both the ovary and the uterine tube.

  Adnexitis / pelvic inflammatory disease is inflammation of both the uterine tube and ovary. It may be caused by spread of infection from the appendix.

   An ovarian cyst is a collection of fluid covered by a thin membrane located in the ovary. In majority of cases, they are of no clinical significance.  However, sometimes they can lead to infertility. In diagnostic ultrasound, small cysts less than 40mm may cause diagnostic confusion due to their resemblance of normal follicles.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Ovary
parent: Longitudal sections of ovary
en_description: - an intraperitoneally located pair of glands that contain maturing oocytes
object_id: ovarium f 1,ovarium f 2
latin: Pars inferior ovarii
en: Inferior section of ovary
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
innervation: plexus ovaricus f 1,plexus ovaricus f 2
blood_supply:
  vena ovarica dextra f,vena ovarica sinistra f,rami tubarii arteriae ovaricae f,arteria ovarica f 1,arteria ovarica f 2

syntopy:
  tuba uterina f 1,tuba uterina f 2,ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1, ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2,myometrium superior f,myometrium inferior f,ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Ovary
parent: External structure of ovary
en_description: - faces the pelvic viscera
latin: facies medialis ovarii
en: Medial surface
cell_type: 0
color: 72A42D
hit_position: 1.04736,0.12449,3.25089
hit_normal: -4.12312,-14.47940,12.73246
body_rotation: 39.27293,-16.08413,-10.34379
tags: genital
object_id:
  ovarium f 1,ovarium superior f 1,ovarium f 2,ovarium superior f 2,!tuba uterina f 1,!tuba uterina f 2,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Ovary
parent: Peritoneal folds and their corresponding arterial supply
latin: mesovarium
en: Mesovarium
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a peritoneal fold of the ovary
  - attaches to the posterior aspect of the broad ligament of the uterus


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.2
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Ovary
parent: Peritoneal folds and their corresponding arterial supply
object_id: ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2
latin: ligamentum suspensorium ovarii
en: Suspensory ligament of ovary
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
innervation: plexus ovaricus f 1,plexus ovaricus f 2
en_description:
  - attaches the tubal extremity of the ovary to the lateral pelvic wall
  - contains the ovarian artery and veins, ovarian nervous plexus and lymphatic vessels

general_description:
  Ligamentum uteroovaricum and  chorda uteroovarica are obsolete terms for the ligament of the ovary.

   Ligamentum infundibulopelvicum is an obsolete term for the suspensory ligament of the ovary.

blood_supply:
  vena ovarica dextra f,vena ovarica sinistra f,rami tubarii arteriae ovaricae f,arteria ovarica f 1,arteria ovarica f 2

syntopy:
  tuba uterina f 1,tuba uterina f 2,ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1, ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2,myometrium superior f,myometrium inferior f,ovarium f 1,ovarium f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.3
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Ovary
parent: Peritoneal folds and their corresponding arterial supply
object_id: ligamentum ovarii proprium f 1,ligamentum ovarii proprium f 2
latin: ligamentum ovarii proprium
en: Ligament of ovary
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
innervation: plexus ovaricus f 1,plexus ovaricus f 2
en_description:
  - attaches the uterine extremity of the ovary to the uterine horns
  - contains the ovarian branch of the uterine artery and its corresponding veins and lymphatic vessels

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 118 characters]

syntopy:
  tuba uterina f 1,tuba uterina f 2,ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1, ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2,myometrium superior f,myometrium inferior f,ovarium f 1,ovarium f 2


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Ovary
parent: Innervation of ovary
en: Innervation of ovary - Parasympathetic system
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  ovarian plexus (from the vagus nerve with accesory fibres from the superior and inferior hypogastric plexuses)


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: Tuba uterina
object_id: tuba uterina f 1,tuba uterina f 2
latin: Tuba uterina*2
en: Uterine tube/Fallopian tube
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
general_description: Salpinx is the Greek term for uterine tube.
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
syntopy: ovarium f 1,ovarium f 2,ovarium superior f 1,ovarium superior f 2,ductus mesonephricus
en_description:
  <b>The uterine tube (Fallopian tube) is a paired muscular tube uniting the uterine horn with the ovary. </b>Its abdominal ostium is <b>reely open to the peritoneal cavity</b>, where it captures released oocytes, which are transported along the tube by peristaltic contractions to the uterine cavity. <b>Fertilisations of an oocyte by a spermatozoon</b> usually happens within the uterine tube.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Salpingitis is inflammation</b> of the uterine tube. It can spread to the peritoneum via the abdominal ostium and thus cause peritonitis.

  <b>Tubal obstruction</b> may result from recurrent inflammation of the uterine tube mucosa and consequent  scarring, causing adhesions and subsequent loss of tubal patency.  This is a common cause of female infertility and ectopic pregnancy.

  <b>Ectopic pregnancy (graviditas extrauterina / GEU)</b> occurs when a zygote  (a fertilised ovum) implants in a different location than its normal implantation site within the uterus.  This occurs most commonly within the uterine tube. However, other locations, such as the cervical canal, ovary or peritoneal cavity are possible.  In the majority of cases the  embryo does not survive. However sometimes its development may  continue and rupture the uterine tube causing life threatening bleeding and sepsis.

blood_supply:
  rami tubarii arteriae ovaricae f,ramus tubarius arteriae uterinae f,vena ovarica sinistra f,vena ovarica dextra f,plexus venosus uterinus f

innervation:
  plexus ovaricus f 1,plexus ovaricus f 2,plexus hypogastricus inferior f 1,plexus hypogastricus inferior f 2,plexus uterovaginalis f 1,plexus uterovaginalis f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: External strucure of uterine tube
latin: ostium abdominale
en: Abdominal ostium
cell_type: 0
color: D55F38
hit_position: -1.33027,0.27167,3.19383
hit_normal: 9.42088,-19.27817,1.87848
body_rotation: 4.31909,331.21650,357.63080
tags: genital
en_description:
  - faces the ovary
  - directly communicates with the peritoneal cavity
  - the inlet of the uterine tube

object_id:
  tuba uterina f 1,tuba uterina f 2,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!ovarium f 1,!ovarium superior f 1,!ovarium f 2,!ovarium superior f 2,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.2
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: External strucure of uterine tube
en_description:
  - a dilated part adjacent to the abdominal ostium
  - contains the fimbriae

latin: infundibulum tubae uterinae
en: Infundibulum of uterine tube
cell_type: 0
color: ACD538
hit_position: -1.26452,0.41649,3.29591
hit_normal: -5.16247,8.11639,-1.41391
body_rotation: 6.32387,144.87580,355.56940
tags: genital
object_id:
  tuba uterina f 1,tuba uterina f 2,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: mesosalpinx*1
en: Arterial anastomosis between the ovarian artery
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  contains an arterial anastomosis between the ovarian artery and the ovarian branch of the uterine artery (called the ovarian arcade) and its branches


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: Internal structure of uterine tube
latin: tunica mucosa
en: Mucosa
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - simple columnar ciliated epithelium
  - is organised in multiple folds, which decrease in number and thickness from the ampulla to the isthmus
  - the epithelium contains ciliated cells, peg cells and basal cells
  - the mucosal folds form the “mucosal labyrinth”, which is formed by primary, secondary and tertiary folds


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: Venous drainageof uterine tube
en: Venous drainageof uterine tube*2
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - theleft ovarian artery (to the left renal vein)
  - the right ovarian artery (to the inferior vena cava)
  - the uterine venous plexus (to the uterine vein, internal iliac vein)


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: Lymphatic drainage of uterine tube
en: Lymphatic drainage of uterine tube*2
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the major part of the uterine tube: the lumbar nodes
  - the isthmus: the superficial inguinal nodes


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterine tube
parent: Innervation of uterine tube
en: Innervation of uterine tube - Parasympathetic system
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the lateral 1/3 of the uterine tube from the ovarian plexus (from vagus nerve)
  - the medial 2/3 of the uterine tube from the inferior hypogastric plexus (from the sacral splanchnic nerves)


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Organa genitalia feminina interna
latin: Uterus*1
en: Uterus
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The uterus is a <b> pear-shaped organ</b> located in the lesser pelvis between the urinary bladder and rectum. Its mucosa undergoes cyclic transformation, synchronised with the ovarian cycle. This ensures that the uterus is ready for implantation and the subsequent development of the fertilised ovum. It is positioned in <b>anteversion and anteflexion </b>and is almost completely covered by peritoneum. Due to its position, spermatozoa can easily reach the uterine cavity and it provides sufficient space for a growing embryo/foetus.

general_description:
  <b>Metra and hystera  </b>are Greek terms for uterus.

    <b>Menstruation </b> is the phase of uterine bleeding that occurs at the  end of the menstrual cycle. After menstruation, the uterine mucosa regenerates during the proliferative phase while an oocyte matures  in the ovary. After the proliferative phase, the oocyte is released from a Graafian follicle into the uterine tube. This is followed by the secretory phase, which prepares the mucosa for implantation of a fertilized ovum. If fertilisation doesn’t occur, menstruation occurs and the cycle repeats.

    <b>Ectocervix (exocervix)  </b>is a clinical term for the vaginal part of the cervix of uterus. Endocervix is a clinical term for its supravaginal part.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Metrorrhagia </b> is uterine bleeding that differs in timing or intensity to normal menstrual bleeding.

   <b> Metralgia </b> is the Latin term for “pain of the uterus”.

    <b>Hysterectomy </b> is the surgical removal of the uterus.

    <b>The epithelium </b> of the cervix changes during puberty. The epithelium  becomes more vulnerable to infection with HPV (human papilloma  virus) during this transformation.  Infection with HPV can cause cervical carcinoma.

    <b>The vesicouterine fold (plica vesicouterina) </b> is located at the bottom  of the vesicouterine pouch. It is an important structure for surgeries such as hysterectomies and caesarean sections. An incision has to  be made in the fold to release and descend the urinary bladder preventing possible surgical injury.

    <b>A myoma / leiomyoma is a benign tumor </b> of the myometrium. It is the most common tumour of the body of the uterus. Its symptoms include long heavy bleeding that occurs independently from menstrual bleeding.

  <b>Metra and hystera  </b>are Greek terms for uterus.

    <b>Menstruation  </b>is the phase of uterine bleeding that occurs at the  end of the menstrual cycle. After menstruation, the uterine mucosa regenerates during the proliferative phase while an oocyte matures  in the ovary. After the proliferative phase, the oocyte is released from a Graafian follicle into the uterine tube. This is followed by the secretory phase, which prepares the mucosa for implantation of a fertilized ovum. If fertilisation doesn’t occur, menstruation occurs and the cycle repeats."


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Uterus*1
object_id: myometrium superior f
latin: Uterus pars superior
en: Superior part of uterus
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
innervation: plexus uterovaginalis f 1,plexus uterovaginalis f 2
blood_supply:
  arteria uterina f,plexus venosus uterinus f,arteriae arcuatae uteri f,ramus ascendens arteria uterinae f,

syntopy:
  rectum,corpus vesicae f,apex vesicae f,fundus vesicae f,ileum,ligamentum ovarii proprium f 1,ligamentum ovarii proprium f 2,tuba uterina f 1,tuba uterina f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: External structure of uterus
en_description: the middle and largest part of the uterus
latin: corpus uteri
en: Body of uterus
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
object_id:
  myometrium superior f,myometrium inferior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: corpus uteri
en_description: the ventro-cranial part of the body of the uterus
latin: fundus uteri
en: Fundus of uterus
cell_type: 0
color: DA378C
hit_position: -0.14613,-0.26153,3.33863
hit_normal: -12.14762,-12.69709,11.16063
body_rotation: 25.31037,44.59652,22.85747
tags: genital
object_id:
  myometrium inferior f,myometrium superior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.4
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: corpus uteri
en_description: houses the developing embryo and foetus
latin: cavitas uteri
en: Uterine cavity
cell_type: 0
color: FFB922
hit_position: -0.24813,0.20062,2.65137
hit_normal: -5.03622,19.13077,9.07494
body_rotation: 336.63450,159.42900,8.46584
tags: genital
object_id:
  myometrium inferior f,!myometrium superior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.3.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: cervix uteri
latin: portio supravaginalis cervicis uteri
en: Supravaginal part of uterus
cell_type: 0
color: 1196AD
hit_position: -0.10435,0.66325,2.34037
hit_normal: -6.90889,18.93874,11.85161
body_rotation: 333.21020,153.60890,12.60680
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the cranial part of the cervix above the attachment of the vagina
  - contains mucosal folds called the palmate folds (plicae palmatae)

object_id:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 393 characters]


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.3.2
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: cervix uteri
en_description: - the caudal part of the cervix protruding into the vagina
latin: portio vaginalis cervicis uteri
en: Vaginal part of uterus
cell_type: 0
color: 962DC7
hit_position: -0.10435,0.66325,2.34037
hit_normal: -6.90889,18.93874,11.85161
body_rotation: 333.21020,153.60890,12.60680
tags: genital
object_id:
  myometrium inferior f,!myometrium superior f,!vagina posterior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.3.4
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: cervix uteri
en_description: - the opening of the cervical canal to the vagina
latin: ostium uteri
en: External os of uterus of uterus
cell_type: 0
color: 65F600
hit_position: -0.36205,0.71899,2.34294
hit_normal: -11.50765,16.21155,-10.94957
body_rotation: 21.91172,137.49290,341.11730
tags: genital
object_id:
  myometrium inferior f,myometrium superior f,!vagina posterior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Internal structure of uterus
latin: Endometrium
en: Endometrium (uterus)
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the uterine mucosa, consists of simple columnar epithelium, connective tissue and simple tubular glands, contains more goblet cells than ciliated cells


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.1.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Endometrium
latin: stratum basale
en: Basal layer of endometrium
cell_type: 0
color: BF03D3
hit_position: -0.31878,0.33727,2.65722
hit_normal: -5.46215,9.82265,6.41483
body_rotation: 335.57560,144.40300,16.48868
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the deepest layer of the endometrium
  - doesnt change during the menstrual cycle,
  - contains the basal parts of the endometrial glands

object_id:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 393 characters]


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.4
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Internal structure of uterus
latin: Parametrium
en: Parametrium (uterus)
cell_type: 0
color: EC1313
hit_position: -0.23862,0.70938,2.31762
hit_normal: -0.89094,4.47695,3.17276
body_rotation: 327.35180,164.74750,8.36846
tags: genital
en_description:
  - loose connective tissue surrounding the caudal part of the uterus
  - extends between two layers of the broad ligament of the uterus and
  - below the broad ligament condenses to form the parametrial ligaments

object_id:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 393 characters]


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 5.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Peritoneal folds
latin: ligamentum latum uteri
en: Broad ligament of uterus
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - is a double peritoneal fold located in the frontal plane of the lesser pelvis, consists of the three parts 
  - it is attached to the uterine border medially and is laterally continuous with the parietal peritoneum of the pelvic wall


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6.2
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Parametrial ligaments
object_id: ligamentum cardinale f
latin: ligamentum cardinale Mackenrodti
en: Cardinal ligament / Mackenrodt’s ligament
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a paired fibrous band extending laterally from the cervix and isthmus to the pelvic wall
  - enables antero-posterior movements of the uterus


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 6.6
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Parametrial ligaments
object_id: ligamenta sacrouterina f 1,ligamenta sacrouterina f 2
latin: ligamenta sacrouterina
en: Uterosacral ligaments
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ligamentum rectouterinum
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the continuation of the recto-uterine ligament to the sacrum, contain the inferior hypogastric plexus


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Uterus
parent: Lymphatic drainage of uterus
en: Lymphatic drainage of uterus*1
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - Body of uterus: the internal iliac nodes
  - Fundus of uterus: the lumbar nodes
  -  Border of uterus: the superficial inguinal nodes along the round ligament of the uterus
  -  Ventral aspect of cervix: the internal iliac nodes
  - Dorsal aspect of cervix: the sacral nodes


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: Organa genitalia feminina interna
latin: Vagina*1
en: Vagina
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  The vagina is a <b> hollow muscular tube</b>  that serves as the<b>  terminal part of the female genital tract</b> . It facilitates <b> copulation and partuition.</b>

general_description:
  <b>Introitus</b> is an obsolete term for the vaginal orifice.

  <b>The hymen</b> is a mucous membrane separating the vestibule from the cavity of the vagina.

  <b>Mons pubis / mons Venus</b> is a fat pad located above the pubic symphysis. It is covered with pubic hair, which grows under the influence of the female sex hormones.

  <b>The urethral carina</b> of the vagina (carina urethralis vaginae) is a ridge on the anterior wall of the vagina formed by the underlying urethra.

  <b>The pubovaginalis </b>(part of the levator ani) circles the vagina at the urogenital hiatus and creates the promontorium vaginae of Thomas.

  <b>Receptaculum seminis</b> is an obsolete term for the posterior part of the vaginal fornix that serves to collect semen after coitus.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Colpitis </b>is inflammation of the vagina.

    <b>The recto-uterine pouch/pouch of Douglas</b> is a clinically important place for palpation and evacuation of fluid that has accumulated inside the peritoneal cavity.

    <b>Colposcopy</b> is an endoscopic examination of the cervix through the vagina.

    <b>Culdoscopy</b> is an endoscopic examination of the recto-uterine pouch. The endoscope is inserted through the posterior fornix of the vagina.

    <b>Vaginal (exfoliative) </b>cytology is a repeated cytological examination of the vaginal epithelium over the course of the menstrual cycle.

   <b> A recto-vaginal fistula</b> is a pathological communication betweenthe vagina and rectum that carries a very high risk of infection.

   <b>Local anesthetics</b> can be applied in the area of the pudendal nerve during or shortly before labour.

    <b>The greater vestibular gland/Bartholin’s gland </b>can be a site of a painful abscess.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: Vagina*1
object_id: vagina posterior f
latin: paries posterior vaginae
en: Posterior wall of vagina
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
innervation: plexus uterovaginalis f 1,plexus uterovaginalis f 2,nervi vaginales f
blood_supply:
  arteria vaginalis f,rami vaginales arteriae uterinae f,arteria pudenda interna f,plexus venosus vaginalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 2,venae pudendae internae f

syntopy:
  labia minora pudendi f,bulbus vestibuli f 1,bulbus vestibuli f 2,urethra feminina f 1,urethra feminina f 2,ostium urethrae externum f,rectum,musculus pubococcygeus,sphincter urethrovaginalis f,musculus puborectalis,musculus sphincter uretrae f


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: External structure of vagina
en_description: - the external opening of the vagina in the vestibule
latin: ostium vaginae
en: Vaginal orifice
cell_type: 0
color: A632EA
hit_position: 0.00969,-0.42428,0.44110
hit_normal: -0.40383,-2.12476,-7.21491
body_rotation: 288.49610,348.78410,10.65015
tags: genital
object_id:
  vagina anterior f,vagina posterior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.3.1
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: canalis vaginalis
latin: paries anterior canalis vaginalis
en: Anterior wall of vaginal canal
cell_type: 0
color: 68B829
hit_position: -0.03303,0.66698,1.51209
hit_normal: 1.98011,22.96737,-4.64188
body_rotation: 10.56970,181.62270,0.29772
tags: genital
object_id:
  vagina anterior f,!vagina posterior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.3.2
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: canalis vaginalis
latin: paries posterior canalis vaginalis
en: Posterior wall of vaginal canal
cell_type: 0
color: 29A2B8
hit_position: 0.05935,0.56658,1.05205
hit_normal: -17.50705,-15.41128,-0.10019
body_rotation: 359.43060,45.42771,359.42210
tags: genital
object_id:
  vagina posterior f,!vagina anterior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.5
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: External structure of vagina
en_description: - encloses the vaginal part of the cervix uteri
latin: fornix vaginae
en: Vaginal fornix
cell_type: 0
color: E56118
hit_position: 0.06529,0.96566,2.12611
hit_normal: -2.88814,-10.61530,9.28241
body_rotation: 41.92808,16.77268,11.38662
tags: genital
object_id:
  vagina anterior f,vagina posterior f,!myometrium superior f,!myometrium inferior f,!mesosalpinx f 1,!mesosalpinx f 2,!myometrium f 1,!myometrium f 2,!perimetrium f,!mesometrium f 1,!mesometrium f 2,!ligamentum cardinale f.!ligamentum vesicouterinum f,!ligamentum pubovesicale f,!ligamenta sacrouterina f,!ligamentum pubocervicale f,!ligamentum rectouterinum f,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 1,!ligamentum suspensorium ovarii f 2


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4.2
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: Regional anatomy of vagina
latin: septum rectovaginale
en: Rectovaginal septum
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a plate of connective tissue between the vagina and rectum
  - the cranial extention of the perineal body (corpus perineale)


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: Arterial supply of vagina
en: Arterial supply of vagina*1
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the vaginal artery, which arises either directly from the internal iliac or from the uterine artery
  - vaginal branches from the uterine artery, middle rectal artery and internal pudendal artery


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: Venous drainage of vagina
en: Venous drainage of vagina*1
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  the internal iliac vein via the uterine venous plexus (into the uterine and vaginal veins), middle rectal and internal pudendal veins


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: Lymphatic drainage of vagina
en: Lymphatic drainage of vagina*1
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  internal and external iliac nodes, sacral nodes
  - caudally below the hymen: the superficial inguinal nodes


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Vagina
parent: Innervation of vagina
en: Innervation of vagina - Viscerosensory and somatosensory system
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the vaginal nerves
  - caudally below the hymen: the pudendal nerve and its branches, inferior rectal nerves, perineal nerves, posterior labial nerves


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: Organa genitalia feminina externa
en: Vulva
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
en_description:
  <b>The vulva</b> is a term for the female external genitalia. It includes the<b> labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, erectile bodies and the vestibule (with it’s associated glands)</b>. The vestibule is an area bordered by the labia minora. The labia majora are covered with skin and pubic hair. The round ligament of the uterus inserts into the fat tissue of the labia majora. The labia minora do not contain fat tissue and are lined with mucosa on their medial surfaces. They divide ventrally into two folds, forming the prepuce and frenulum of the clitoris. The clitoris is an erectile organ connected to the two erectile bodies of the bulb of the vestibule.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.2
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: vestibulum vaginae
object_id: bartholini f 1,bartholini f 2
latin: glandula vestibularis major Bartholini
en: Greater vestibular gland / Bartholin’s gland
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - a paired mucous gland embedded in the perineal membrane
  - opens into the posterior part of the vestibule


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: Vulva
object_id: f labia major f
latin: labia majora pudendi
en: Labia majora
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
blood_supply:
  arteriae labiales posteriores f,arteriae labiales anteriores f,venae labiales anteriores f,venae labiales anteriores f,arteria bulbi vestibuli f,vena bulbi vestibuli f

innervation:
  nervi perineales f,nervus perinealis superficialis f,nervus ilioinguinalis f,nervus genitofemoralis f,

syntopy:
  vagina anterior f,vagina posterior f,clitoris f,labia minora pudendi f,musculus bulbospongiosus f,ostium urethrae externum f


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.1
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: labia majora pudendi
object_id: f labia major f
latin: commissura labiorum anterior
en: Anterior commissure
cell_type: 0
color: 6C1090
hit_position: 0.05853,-1.57483,1.04680
hit_normal: -0.76532,-17.05582,-12.06566
body_rotation: 327.22450,358.34360,0.89686
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the anterior connection of the two labia majora
  - is located ventral to the prepuce of the clitoris


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: Vulva
object_id: labia minora pudendi f
latin: labia minora pudendi
en: Labia minora
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
blood_supply:
  arteriae labiales posteriores f,arteriae labiales anteriores f,venae labiales anteriores f,venae labiales anteriores f,arteria bulbi vestibuli f,vena bulbi vestibuli f,

innervation:
  nervi perineales f,nervus perinealis superficialis f,nervus ilioinguinalis f,nervus genitofemoralis f,

syntopy:
  vagina anterior f,vagina posterior f,clitoris f,f labia major f,musculus bulbospongiosus f,ostium urethrae externum f


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.4
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: Vulva
en_description: - the female erectile organ
object_id: clitoris f,!f labia major f
latin: clitoridis
en: Clitoris
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
innervation: nervus dorsalis clitoridis f,nervi cavernosi clitoridis f 1
general_description:
  The fascia of the clitoris (fascia clitoridis) covers the clitoris and attaches it to the anterior surface of the pubic symphysis.

blood_supply:
  arteria dorsalis clitoris f,venae dorsales superficiales clitoridis f,venae profundae clitoridis,vena dorsalis profunda clitoridis f,arteria bulbi vestibuli f,vena bulbi vestibuli f

syntopy:
  vagina anterior f,vagina posterior f,labia minora pudendi f,f labia major f,musculus ischiocavernosus f,musculus bulbospongiosus f,ostium urethrae externum f


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.4.1
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: clitoridis
object_id: clitoris f,!f labia major f
latin: crura clitoridis
en: Crura of clitoris
cell_type: 0
color: 17A9C2
hit_position: -0.23813,-0.93227,1.00408
hit_normal: -12.35592,-4.57913,11.88125
body_rotation: 15.73789,71.61485,39.21698
tags: genital
en_description:
  - paired bodies of erectile tissue attached to the phallic crest of the inferior pubic ramus
  - meet in the midline at the body of the clitoris


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Vulva
parent: Vulva
object_id: bulbus vestibuli f 1,bulbus vestibuli f 2
latin: bulbus vestibuli
en: Bulb of vestibule
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
blood_supply: arteria bulbi vestibuli f,vena bulbi vestibuli f,
innervation: nervi perineales f
en_description:
  - a pair of erectile bodies encircling the vestibule
  - ventrally connected at the commissure of the bulbs commissura bulborum


system: urogenital
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Arterial supply of vulva
parent: Arterial supply of vulva
en: Arterial supply of vulva*1
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the anterior labial branches (from external pudendal artery, which is from the femoral artery)
  - the posterior labial branches (from internal pudendal artery, which is from the from internal iliac artery)
  - the deep artery of clitoris, dorsal artery of clitoris and artery of bulb of vestibule (from are from the internal pudendal artery, which is from the internal iliac artery)


system: urogenital
main_group: Female external genital system
sub_group: Venous drainage of vulva
parent: Venous drainage of vulva
en: Venous drainage of vulva*1
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  - the superficial dorsal vein of the clitoris and anterior labial veins (drain into the external pudendal veins, which drain into the common femoral vein)
  - the deep dorsal vein of the clitoris (drains into the pudendal and vesical venous plexuses, which drain into the internal iliac vein)
  - the posterior labial veins and vein of the bulb of the vestibule (drain into the internal pudendal vein, which drains into the internal iliac vein)


system: urogenital
main_group: Female internal genital system
sub_group: Mesonephric duct (Wolffian duct)
parent: ductus mesonephricus
object_id: paroophoron f 1,paroophoron f 2
latin: paroophoron
en: Paroophora
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
master_object: ductus mesonephricus
tags: genital
en_description:
  It consists of scattered tubular remnants located in a broad ligament, closer to the uterus than the parovarium.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Female urethra
sub_group: External female urethra
parent: musculus sphincter urethrae externus
object_id: urethra feminina externa f 1
latin: musculus sphincter urethrae externus pars sinister
en: Left section of external female urethra
related_objects: pelvis,os sacrum,vertebrae lumbales l5,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l3
cell_type: 0
tags: urinary
innervation: plexus vesicalis f 1,plexus vesicalis f 2
blood_supply:
  arteria vesicalis inferior f,arteria urethralis f,arteria pudenda interna f,arteria vaginalis f,plexus venosus vesicalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 1,plexus venosus vaginalis f 2,plexus venosus vesicalis f 2,venae pudendae internae f

syntopy:
  vagina anterior f,ostium urethrae externum f,clitoris f,fundus vesicae f,musculus sphincter uretrae f,compressor urethrae f 1,compressor urethrae f 2,sphincter urethrovaginalis f,musculus pubococcygeus,urethra feminina f 1,urethra feminina f 2


system: urogenital
main_group: Breast and mammary gland
sub_group: Structure of mammary gland
parent: Mamma et glandula mammaria
en: Structure of mammary gland
clinical_notes: <b>Mastos</b> is the Greek term for breast.
cell_type: 0
tags: genital
en_description:
  <b>The breast</b> is a paired organ located on the thorax. <b>The areola</b> is a pigmented area of skin located at the apex of the breast. <b>The nipple is located in the centre of the areola</b> and serves as a opening of the lactiferous ducts. The mammary gland and fat tissue are located inside the breast. The mammary gland is the<b> largest skin gland </b>and<b> produces milk for the newborn</b>. The mammary gland is derived from the mammary crest in both sexes and is located between the 3rd and 6th intercostal spaces. The weight of the breast increases during puberty and lactation. The usual of the breast is 150 g but can increase to up to 300-800 g during lactation .

general_description:
  <b>It is necessary to remove the axillary lymph nodes</b> when performing mastectomy for advanced breast tumours. Only level 1 and level 2 nodes (according to Berg’s classification) are dissected. Level 3 nodes are left as they lie close to the axillary neurovascular bundle and so carry a high risk of complications such as lymphoedema of the upper extremity.

  <b>The insertion of the suspensory ligaments (retinaculum) of the breast</b> to the skin gives an explanation as to why skin sometimes retracts over breast tumours.

  <b>Accessory breast tissue</b> can be found at any point along the course of the mammary crest. This condition is known as polymastia. The most common form accessory breast tissue takes is a supernumery nipple (polythelia).

  <b>The areolomammilar complex</b> is a term for the areola and nipple. Sensory nerves approach from above, which is why surgical incisions are performed below the lower border of the areola.


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Breast and mammary gland
sub_group: Structure of mammary gland
parent: Structure of mammary gland
en_description: a circular pigmented area around the nipple
object_id: areola mammae f
latin: areola mammae
en: Areola
cell_type: 1
master_object: Skin of breast
tags: genital
syntopy: musculus obliquus externus abdominis,musculus pectoralis major,musculus serratus anterior
related_objects:
  musculus pectoralis major,costa secunda 2,os costale 3,os costale 4,os costale 7,os costale 6,os costale 5,cartilago costalis

blood_supply:
  rami mammarii laterales arteriae thoracicae lateralis f,rami mammarii mediales arteriae thoracicae internae f,rami pectorales arteriae thoracocromialis f,rami mammarii laterales venae thoracicae lateralis f,rami mammarii mediales venae thoracicae internae f,

innervation:
  ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici sexti f,ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici quinti f,ramus cutaneous lateralis rami anterioris nervi thoracici quarti f,ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici sexti f,ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici quinti f,ramus cutaneous anterior rami anterioris nervi thoracici quarti f,nervi supraclaviculares mediales f


system: urogenital
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Breast and mammary gland
sub_group: Structure of mammary gland
parent: Structure of mammary gland
latin: stratum adiposum mammae
en: Adipose layer / mammary fat pad
cell_type: 1
tags: genital
en_description:
  - is located both in front and behind the gland
  - the volume of fat determines the size of the breast


# content_respiratory

system: respiratory
main_group: General overview
memorix_page: 206
en: General overview
cell_type: 0
tags: upper
en_description:
  <b>The respiratory tract is a tree of ducts, </b>which is divided into the <b>upper and lower airways</b>. Anatomically, the upper respiratory tract ends with the laryngopharynx; clinically, it includes the larynx and the cervical part of the trachea. The wall of the airways is strengthened by cartilage and elastic fibres, which protects the airway from collapse and provide elasticity. The respiratory system is responsible for the <b>exchange of gases </b>between the <b>air and blood, voice production, maintenance of acid-base balance </b>and <b>elimination of substances</b>.


system: respiratory
main_group: Nose
memorix_page: 206
latin: Nasus
en: Nose
cell_type: 0
tags: upper
en_description:
  The nose has <b>a bony and cartilaginous base </b>of a triangular shape. The skin of the nose is <b>rich in sebaceous glands</b>. The skin overlying the bony part is movable, while the skin overlying cartilaginous part is firmly fixed. The muscles of facial expression inserting into the nose constrict and flare the nostrils.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Nose
sub_group: Structure of the nose
parent: Nasus
memorix_page: 206
en: Structure of the nose
cell_type: 1
general_description:
  <b>The airways </b>are almost entirely lined by mucosa with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. Coordinated ciliary movements ( mucociliary escalator) beat a layer of secreted mucus towards the pharynx, cleaning the airways. 

  <b>The olfactory region </b><i>(regio olfactoria) </i>comprises the mucosa of the ceiling of the nasal cavity and the upper third of the nasal septum. It is lined with olfactory epithelium, which is specialised sensory pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. The supporting cells contain lipofuscin granules, imparting a yellowish colour to the mucosa. 

  <b>The respiratory region </b><i>(regio respiratoria) </i>constitutes all the mucosa of the nasal cavity excluding the olfactory region. It is lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. 

  <b>The nasal vestibule </b>contains thick hairs (<i>vibrissae</i>), which mechanically prevent particles from entering the nasal cavity. 

  <b>The vomeronasal cartilage </b>(<i>cartilago vomeronasalis</i>) is a minor paired cartilage, which is fixed to the septal nasal cartilage. It is rudimentary and insignificant in humans. 

  <b>In plastic surgery, the columella </b>is described as the skin that overlies the outer margin of the nasal septum.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The nasal cavity can be surgically approached </b>externally (the classic approach) or endoscopically and microscopically (functional endoscopic sinus surgery). 

  <b>The pituitary gland </b>may be surgically approached through the nasal cavity and sphenoidal sinus. 

  <b>A deviated nasal septum </b>may, during inflammation or oedema, obstruct half of the nasal cavity or block the openings of the paranasal sinuses. 

  <b>Liquorrhea </b>is leakage of cerebrospinal fluid from the subarachnoid space. In fractures or surgeries affecting the anterior cranial fossa, cerebrospinal fluid may leak from the nose (nasal liquorrhea).


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Nose
sub_group: Structure of the nose
parent: Structure of the nose
memorix_page: 206
latin: cartilagines nasi
en: Nasal cartilages
cell_type: 0
blood_supply:
  arteria angularis,arteria infraorbitalis,arteria supratrochlearis,venae nasales externae,vena facialis,vena angularis,arcus nasalis

innervation:
  nervus ophthalmicus,nervus ethmoidalis anterior,nervus nasociliaris,nervus maxillaris,nervus infraorbitalis,rami nasales interni nervi infraorbialis,rami nasales externi nervi infraorbialis


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Nose
sub_group: Structure of the nose
parent: cartilagines nasi
memorix_page: 206
object_id: cartilago nasi lateralis 1,cartilago nasi lateralis 2
latin: cartilago nasi lateralis
en: Lateral nasal cartilage
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os nasale 1,os nasale 2, corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,os ethmoidale,vomer,cartilago nasi lateralis 1,cartilago nasi lateralis 2,cartilago alaris major 1,cartilago alaris major 2,cartilages alares minores 1,cartilages alares minores 2,cartilago septi nasi,cartilagines nasales accessoriae 1,cartilagines nasales accessoriae 2,adiposus fibrosus alaris 1,adiposus fibrosus alaris 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Nose
sub_group: Vascular supply and innervation
parent: Vascular supply and innervation
memorix_page: 206
en: Arterial supply
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  angular artery (facial artery), infraorbital artery (maxillary artery), supratrochlear and infratrochlear arteries (ophthalmic artery)


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Basic parts of nasal cavity
parent: Basic parts of nasal cavity
memorix_page: 207
en: Parts of nasal cavity
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The nasal cavity is open through the nostrils to the external environment. Dorsally, it communicates with the  <b>nasopharynx  </b>through the posterior nasal  <b>apertures.  </b>It is divided sagittally by the  <b>nasal septum</b>, which is composed of cartilage ventrally and bone dorsally. The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by the palate. The three  <b>conchae  </b>(inferior, medial and superior) protrude from the lateral wall and divide the cavity into four groove-like air passages, the inferior, middle, superior and common meatuses, which communicate with the  <b>paranasal sinuses and the nasolacrimal duct</b>. The roof is formed by the base of the anterior cranial fossa and is involved in  <b>olfaction</b>. The nasal cavity serves to  <b>heat and humidify inspired air</b>, and mechanically blocks particles from entering.

general_description:
  <b>The sphenoethmoidal recess  </b>is the dorso cranial projection of the nasal cavity towards the upper end of the anterior aspect of the sphenoid bone. The sphenoidal sinus opens here through the superior nasal meatus.

    <b>The cavernous plexuses of the conchae  </b>are vascular plexuses on the conchae.  <b>Kiesselbach’s plexus  </b>is located on the cartilaginous septum near the anterior end of the inferior nasal concha. It is a frequent source of nasal bleeding (epistaxis). It is supplied by 5 arteries: superior labial, anterior and posterior ethmoidal, sphenopalatine and greater palatine.  <b>Woodruff ’s plexus  </b>is a venous plexus on the dorsal end of the inferior nasal concha, which may be a source of venous bleeding.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Basic parts of nasal cavity
parent: Parts of nasal cavity
memorix_page: 207
object_id: cavitas nasi 1
latin: cavitas nasi sinister
en: Left part of nasal cavity
cell_type: 0
syntopy: corpus maxillae 2,corpus maxillae 1,os ethmoidale,gingiva,palatum durum
related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,cavitas nasi 2,pars nasalis pharyngis,os nasale 1,corpus maxillae 1,os ethmoidale,os lacrimale 1,corpus maxillae 2,os ethmoidale,os lacrimale 2

blood_supply:
  arteria palatina descendens,arteria facialis,vena facialis,vena angularis,venae ethmoidales,venae nasales,plexus pharyngeus,arteriae nasales posteriores laterales,rami septales posteriores arteriae nasales,rami septales anteriores arteriae nasales

innervation:
  nervus ethmoidalis posterior,nervus nasociliaris,nervus ophthalmicus,nervus ethmoidalis anterior,posterior nasal branches,infraorbital nerve


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Basic parts of nasal cavity
parent: Parts of nasal cavity
memorix_page: 207
object_id: cavitas nasi 2
latin: cavitas nasi dexter
en: Right part of nasal cavity
cell_type: 0
syntopy: corpus maxillae 2,corpus maxillae 1,os ethmoidale,gingiva,palatum durum
related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,cavitas nasi 1,pars nasalis pharyngis,,corpus maxillae 1,os ethmoidale,os lacrimale 1,corpus maxillae 2,os ethmoidale,os lacrimale 2

blood_supply:
  arteria palatina descendens,arteria facialis,vena facialis,vena angularis,venae ethmoidales,venae nasales,plexus pharyngeus,arteriae nasales posteriores laterales,rami septales posteriores arteriae nasales,rami septales anteriores arteriae nasales

innervation:
  nervus ethmoidalis posterior,nervus nasociliaris,nervus ophthalmicus,nervus ethmoidalis anterior,posterior nasal branches,infraorbital nerve


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Basic parts of nasal cavity
parent: vestibulum nasi
memorix_page: 207
latin: limen nasi
en: Limen nasi
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the border between the nasal vestibule and the nasal cavity proper
  - a ridge formed by the upper edge of the major alar cartilage


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Nasal meatus
parent: meatus nasi
memorix_page: 208
latin: meatus nasi superior
en: Superior nasal meatus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located between the roof of the nasal cavity and the middle nasal concha
  - contains the openings of the sphenoid sinus and posterior ethmoidal air cells


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Nasal meatus
parent: meatus nasi
memorix_page: 208
latin: meatus nasi medius
en: Middle nasal meatus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located between the middle and inferior nasal conchae
  - contains the openings of the frontal sinus, maxillary sinus and anterior and middle ethmoidal air cells


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Nasal meatus
parent: meatus nasi
memorix_page: 208
latin: meatus nasi inferior
en: Inferior nasal meatus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is located between the inferior nasal concha and the floor of the nasal cavity
  - contains the opening of the nasolacrimal duct


system: respiratory
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Vascular supply of nasal cavity
parent: Vascular supply of nasal cavity
memorix_page: 208
en: Arterial supply
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries (ophthalmic artery), descending palatine artery (maxillary artery), sphenopalatine artery (maxillary artery), facial artery


system: respiratory
main_group: Nasal cavity
sub_group: Innervation of nasal cavity
parent: Innervation of nasal cavity
memorix_page: 208
en: Somatosensory
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  anterior ethmoidal nerve (ophthalmic nerve), posterior nasal branches and infraorbital nerve (maxillary nerve)


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Paranasal sinuses
sub_group: Parts of the paranasal sinuses
parent: Paranasal sinuses
memorix_page: 208
latin: Sinus paranasales *2
en: Parts of the paranasal sinuses
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The paranasal sinuses are air filled cavities within the bones of the skull. They <b>increase the resonance of voice </b>and <b>decrease the weight of the skull.</b>

general_description:
  <b>The semilunar hiatus </b>is the opening of the maxillary sinus, frontal sinus and anterior and middle ethmoidal air cells into the middle nasal meatus.

  <b>The paranasal sinuses  </b>arise as outgrowths of the nasal mucosa into the neighbouring bones. They are therefore covered by mucosa with respiratory epithelium. They developed mostly after birth; the newborn has only very rudimentary ethmoidal air cells and maxillary sinuses.

clinical_notes:
  <b>During inflammation of the paranasal sinuses (sinusitis)</b>, percussion over the sinus becomes painful. The inflammation may erode the thin bone and enter the cranial cavity or the orbit. An X-ray may show opacity of the sinus.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Paranasal sinuses
sub_group: Parts of the paranasal sinuses
parent: Sinus paranasales *2
en_description: opens into the middle nasal meatus
memorix_page: 208
object_id: sinus frontalis 1,sinus frontalis 2
latin: sinus frontalis
en: Frontal sinus
related_objects: os nasale 1,corpus maxillae 1,os ethmoidale,os lacrimale 1,cavitas nasi 1, cavitas nasi 2
cell_type: 0
clinical_notes:
  <b>During inflammation of the frontal sinus  </b>(frontal sinusitis), palpation of the ophthalmic nerve (N. V1) may produce pain


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Paranasal sinuses
sub_group: Parts of the paranasal sinuses
parent: Sinus paranasales *2
en_description: opens into the middle nasal meatus
memorix_page: 208
object_id: sinus maxillaris 1,sinus maxillaris 2
latin: sinus maxillaris
en: Maxillary sinus
related_objects: os ethmoidale,os sphenoidale,os lacrimale 1,concha nasi inferior 1,cavitas nasi 1, cavitas nasi 2
cell_type: 0
clinical_notes:
  <b>During inflammation of the maxillary sinus </b>(maxillary sinusitis), palpation of the maxillary nerve (N. V2) may produce pain.

   <b>The maxillary sinus  </b>is closely related to the roots of the upper teeth, especially the canine, which has the longest root.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Paranasal sinuses
sub_group: Parts of the paranasal sinuses
parent: Sinus paranasales *2
memorix_page: 208
object_id: cellulae ethmoidales 1,cellulae ethmoidales 2
latin: cellulae ethmoidales
en: Ethmoidal air cells
related_objects: corpus maxillae 1,cavitas nasi 1, cavitas nasi 2, os sphenoidale
cell_type: 0
clinical_notes:
  <b>During inflammation of the ethmoidal air cells</b>, the nasal root may be tender to palpation.

  <b>The ethmoidal air cells  </b>are separated from the orbit by the very thin orbital plate of the ethmoid (<i>lamina orbitalis ossis ethmoidalis  </i>or, the obsolete term,  <i>lamina papyracea</i>). Infection may, especially in young children, erode the thin bone and spread into the orbit and cause orbital cellulitis.


system: respiratory
main_group: Pharynx
memorix_page: 209
latin: Pharynx
en: Pharynx
cell_type: 0
tags: upper
en_description:
  The pharynx is a muscular funnel-shaped organ attached to the base of the skull. Caudally it <b>continues as the oesophagus. </b>Ventrally it communicates with the nasal, oral and laryngeal cavities. The oral and laryngeal parts of the pharynx are components of both the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. The function of the pharynx is based on <b>two types of paired muscles</b>: <b>levators and constrictors</b>. The pharynx has an important role in <b>swallowing, speaking and breathing.</b>


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Pharynx
sub_group: Nasopharynx divison
parent: Nasopharynx divison
en_description: - communicates with the nasal cavity through the choanae
memorix_page: 209
object_id: pars nasalis pharyngis
latin: epipharynx
en: Nasopharynx
cell_type: 0
syntopy: vertebrae cervicales c6,os sphenoidale,os occipitale,cavitas nasi 2,cavitas nasi 1,
related_objects:
  os occipitale,os hyoideum,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,os sphenoidale,pars laryngea pharyngis,pars oralis pharyngis,cavitas nasi 1,cavitas nasi 2,sinus frontalis 1,sinus frontalis 2,sinus maxillaris 1,sinus maxillaris 2,cellulae ethmoidales 1,cellulae ethmoidales 2,sinus sphenoidalis 1,sinus sphenoidalis 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.4
main_group: Pharynx
sub_group: Nasopharynx divison
parent: Structures
memorix_page: 209
object_id: pars nasalis pharyngis
latin: torus tubarius
en: Torus tubarius
cell_type: 0
color: 4e39ad
hit_position: 0.33048,25.16090,-0.34136
hit_normal: -4.09019,-5.79194,5.66215
body_rotation: 328.40230,41.27815,335.30000
en_description:
  - an elevation of mucosa behind the opening of the auditory tube formed by the medial lamina of the cartilaginous part of the auditory tube


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.7
main_group: Pharynx
sub_group: Nasopharynx divison
parent: Structures
memorix_page: 209
latin: torus levatorius
en: Torus levatorius
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a ridge between the salpingopalatine and salpingopharyngeal folds beneath the opening of the auditory tube, formed by the levator veli palatini


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Pharynx
sub_group: Oropharynx divison
parent: Oropharynx divison
en_description: - communicates with the oral cavity through the isthmus of fauces
memorix_page: 209
object_id: pars oralis pharyngis
latin: pars oralis pharyngis *3
en: Oropharynx
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,os hyoideum,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,os sphenoidale,pars nasalis pharyngis,pars laryngea pharyngis,cavitas nasi 1,cavitas nasi 2,sinus frontalis 1,sinus frontalis 2,sinus maxillaris 1,sinus maxillaris 2,cellulae ethmoidales 1,cellulae ethmoidales 2,sinus sphenoidalis 1,sinus sphenoidalis 2

syntopy:
  linguae distal,musculus palatopharyngeus,palatum durum,gingiva,cartilago epiglottica,os occipitale,axis c2,atlas c1


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Pharynx
sub_group: Laryngopharynx divison
parent: Laryngopharynx divison
en_description: - communicates with the laryngeal cavity through the laryngeal inlet
memorix_page: 209
object_id: pars laryngea pharyngis
latin: hypopharynx / pars laryngea pharyngis
en: Laryngopharynx
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os occipitale,os hyoideum,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,os sphenoidale,pars oralis pharyngis,pars nasalis pharyngis,cavitas nasi 1,cavitas nasi 2,sinus frontalis 1,sinus frontalis 2,sinus maxillaris 1,sinus maxillaris 2,cellulae ethmoidales 1,cellulae ethmoidales 2,sinus sphenoidalis 1,sinus sphenoidalis 2

syntopy:
  musculus palatopharyngeus,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,Oesophagus,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: Larynx
memorix_page: 210
latin: cavitas laryngis
en: Laryngeal cavity
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  <b>The larynx </b>is <b>a hollow organ attached to the hyoid bone</b>. It <b>communicates cranially with the laryngopharynx and caudally it continues as the trachea</b>. The laryngeal skeleton <b>consists of a system of cartilages </b>connected by ligaments and joints. The movement of the cartilages is provided by skeletal muscles. The larynx has two surfaces: an inner surface covered by mucosa and an outer surface covered by adventitia. The larynx plays a role in <b>breathing </b>and is the main organ of <b>phonation.</b>

general_description:
  <b>The tussigenic zones </b>consist of areas innervated by the vagus nerve that may induce coughing when irritated. They include the larynx, trachea, main bronchi, parietal pleura, diaphragm, pericardium, oesophagus and external acoustic meatus. 

  <b>The mechanism of sneezing </b>is very similar to coughing. The difference is that during a sneeze, the uvula is depressed and most of the air is forced out through the nose. The fifth cranial nerve innervating the nasal mucosa provides the afferent limb of the sneeze reflex. 

  <b>During swallowing </b>the airways are closed by elevation of the pharynx by the suprahyoid muscles and the thyrohyoid with subsequent closure of the laryngeal inlet by the epiglottis. 

  <b>Closure of the laryngeal inlet </b>is caused by contractions of the aryepiglottic part of the oblique arytenoid, the thyroepiglottic part of the thyroarytenoid and by descent of the root of the tongue. 
  <b>Closure of the rima glottidis </b>is caused by contraction of the lateral cricoarytenoid and the oblique and transverse arytenoids.

  <b>Laryngeal oedema </b>( <i>oedema glottidis/laryngis</i>) is inflammation located under the mucosa of the laryngeal cavity.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Laryngoscopy </b>is an examination of the laryngeal cavity. It can be performed directly with a laryngoscope or indirectly using a mirror.


system: respiratory
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: cavitas laryngis
object_id: tunica mucosa laryngis
latin: tunica mucosa laryngis
en: Mucosa of Larynx
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,pars oralis pharyngis,tunica mucosa trachealia,cartilago epiglottica, os sphenoidale, os occipitale

blood_supply:
  arteria laryngea superior,arteria laryngea inferior,venae thyroidea superior,vena thyroidea media,vena laryngea superior,vena crycothyroideus,rami pharyngeales arterieae thyroideae inferioris,arteria thyroidea inferior,arteria thyroidea superior,ramus sternocleidomasoideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus infrahyoideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus glandularis posterior arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus glandularis anterior arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus cricothyroideus arteriae thyroideae superioris

innervation:
  rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 2,nervus laryngeus superior 2,nervus laryngeus superior 1,ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris 1,ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris 2,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 2,nervus laryngeus recurrens 2,nervus laryngeus recurrens 1,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 1,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 1

syntopy:
  arteria carotis communis sinistra,vena jugularis interna,arteria carotis communis dextra,glandula thyroidea,os hyoideum,Trachea,pars laryngea pharyngis


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: tunica mucosa laryngis
en_description: - an opening in the ventral wall of the laryngopharynx that connects the pharynx to the larynx
memorix_page: 210
latin: aditus laryngis
en: Laryngeal inlet
cell_type: 0
color: 77b012
hit_position: -0.12406,-0.02981,22.52730
hit_normal: 0.93571,16.81627,8.56356
body_rotation: 331.28360,182.07780,359.00130
object_id:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!pars oralis pharyngis,!atlas c1,!axis c2,!vertebrae cervicales c3,!vertebrae cervicales c4,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: tunica mucosa laryngis
en_description: - a space between the laryngeal inlet and the rima vestibuli
memorix_page: 210
latin: vestibulum laryngis
en: Laryngeal vestibule
cell_type: 0
color: 8812b0
hit_position: 0.03701,0.01782,22.19191
hit_normal: 0.12240,13.84821,14.32677
body_rotation: 312.92860,179.10980,0.65180
object_id:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!pars oralis pharyngis,!rima vestibuli,!glottis,!atlas c1,!axis c2,!vertebrae cervicales c3,!vertebrae cervicales c4,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: tunica mucosa laryngis
en_description: - paired mucosal folds
memorix_page: 210
latin: plicae vestibulares
en: Vestibular folds
cell_type: 0
color: c0be19
hit_position: -0.02541,0.12107,21.98430
hit_normal: 0.41936,6.89530,7.73797
body_rotation: 311.07970,181.34140,358.98870
object_id:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!pars oralis pharyngis,!rima vestibuli,!glottis,!atlas c1,!axis c2,!vertebrae cervicales c3,!vertebrae cervicales c4,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7,!os occipitale


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: plicae vestibulares
en_description: - ligaments forming the vestibular folds
memorix_page: 210
object_id: ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2
latin: ligamenta vestibularia
en: Vestibular ligaments / false vocal cords
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago cricoidea,membrana quadrangularis 1,cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,cartilago cricoidea,membrana quadrangularis 2,cartilago corniculata 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3.2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: plicae vestibulares
en_description: - a space between the vestibular folds
memorix_page: 210
object_id: rima vestibuli
latin: rima vestibuli
en: Rima vestibuli
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago cricoidea,membrana quadrangularis 1,cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,cartilago cricoidea,membrana quadrangularis 2,cartilago corniculata 2

blood_supply:
  arteria laryngea superior,arteria laryngea inferior,venae thyroidea superior,vena thyroidea media,vena laryngea superior,vena crycothyroideus,rami pharyngeales arterieae thyroideae inferioris,arteria thyroidea inferior,arteria thyroidea superior,ramus sternocleidomasoideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus infrahyoideus arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus glandularis posterior arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus glandularis anterior arteriae thyroideae superioris,ramus cricothyroideus arteriae thyroideae superioris

innervation:
  rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 2,nervus laryngeus superior 2,nervus laryngeus superior 1,ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris 1,ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris 2,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 2,nervus laryngeus recurrens 2,nervus laryngeus recurrens 1,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 1,ramus externus nervi laryngei superioris 1

syntopy:
  arteria carotis communis sinistra,vena jugularis interna,arteria carotis communis dextra,glandula thyroidea,os hyoideum,Trachea,pars laryngea pharyngis


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4.1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: glottis
en_description: - the lateral recess of the glottis
memorix_page: 210
latin: ventriculus laryngis
en: Laryngeal ventricle
cell_type: 0
color: 12d1be
object_id:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,!cartilago thyroidea,!musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,!musculus thyroarytenoideus 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: tunica mucosa laryngis
en_description: - paired mucous folds between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages
latin: plicae vocales
en: Vocal folds / true vocal cords
cell_type: 0
color: d19012
hit_position: 0.09705,0.44721,22.02517
hit_normal: 0.09818,3.82262,8.39565
body_rotation: 296.13220,182.69590,357.57930
object_id:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!pars oralis pharyngis,!rima vestibuli,!glottis,!atlas c1,!axis c2,!vertebrae cervicales c3,!vertebrae cervicales c4,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7,!os occipitale

general_description:
  <b>Voice change </b>(voice mutation) in males is caused by increased production of testosterone resulting in rapid growth of the vocal folds and a decrease of the pitch of voice.

  <b>Phonation </b>(voice production) is made possible by tensing the vocal folds and narrowing the rima glottidis. 

  <b>Ventilation </b>can only occur when the vocal folds are relaxed and the rima glottidis is open.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5.2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: plicae vocales
en_description: - a space between the vocal folds
memorix_page: 210
object_id: rima glottidis
latin: Rima glottidis
en: Rima glottidis
related_objects: tunica mucosa laryngis
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The rima glottidis </b>is the narrowest part of the laryngeal cavity in adults. In children, the width is almost equal to the infraglottic cavity.

  <b>The rima glottidis has three parts: </b>
  <b>Intramembranous part </b>- between the vocal ligaments 
  <b>Intercartilaginous part </b>- between the vocal processes
  <b>Interarytenoid part </b>- between the arytenoid cartilages 

  <b>A cough </b>(<i>tussis</i>) is an expiratory reflex to clean the lower airways of phlegm, sputum and foreign bodies irritating or blocking the airways. A cough begins with a deep breath, followed by strong contraction of the abdominal and expiratory muscles against a closed rima glottidis. The rima glottidis suddenly opens and air is forced out.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The laryngeal inlet and rima glottidis </b>are narrow sections where foreign bodies may get stuck resulting in coughing and/or choking. 

  <b>Laryngospasm </b>is a spasmodic muscular contraction caused by irritation of the laryngeal mucosa closing the rima glottidis. This can result from trauma, foreign object aspiration, inflammation or allergy.

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 525 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 371 characters]

syntopy:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 151 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Laryngeal cavity
parent: tunica mucosa laryngis
en_description: - a space below the rima glottidis
memorix_page: 210
latin: cavitas infraglottica
en: Infraglottic cavity
cell_type: 0
color: 26abcd
hit_position: 0.01626,0.31162,21.67095
hit_normal: -0.14511,5.15356,-1.57359
body_rotation: 17.62523,177.13600,359.13210
object_id:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,!tunica mucosa trachealia,!cartilago cricoidea,!paries membranaceus,!cartilagines tracheales,!ligamenta anularia,!musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,!musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Histological structure of the mucosa
parent: Histological structure of the mucosa
memorix_page: 210
en: Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - whitish mucosa on the vocal folds, ary-epiglottic folds, ventral side and cranial half of the dorsal side of the epiglottis


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: Larynx
memorix_page: 211
en: Cartilages of the Larynx
cell_type: 1
clinical_notes:
  <b>Cricothyrotomy </b>(goniopuncture or coniotomy) is performed by a transverse incision through the middle cricothyroid ligament and the conus elasticus. 

  <b>Needle cricothyrotomy </b>(coniotomy) is performed by inserting a needle into the laryngeal cavity through the cricothyroid ligament and the conus elasticus. 

  <b>Both cricothyrotomy and needle cricothyrotomy </b>are life-saving procedures.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: Cartilages of the Larynx
en_description: - hyaline, unpaired
memorix_page: 211
object_id: cartilago thyroidea
latin: cartilago thyroidea
en: Thyroid cartilage
cell_type: 2
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago corniculata 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2

clinical_notes:
  <b>Injury of the recurrent laryngeal nerve </b>occurs as a complication of thyroid surgery due to its close topographical relation to the thyroid gland. Unilateral injury may result in a quiet voice. Bilateral injury causes difficulty in breathing as a result of paralysis of the posterior cricoarytenoid.

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 525 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 371 characters]

syntopy:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 151 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: cartilago thyroidea
memorix_page: 211
latin: cornua superiora et inferiora
en: Superior and inferior horns
cell_type: 0
color: 286eb7
hit_position: -0.50932,0.61683,22.05226
hit_normal: 0.09312,23.04068,2.11855
body_rotation: 355.53880,176.05510,0.30733
object_id:
  cartilago thyroidea,!atlas c1,!axis c2,!vertebrae cervicales c3,!vertebrae cervicales c4,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: Cartilages of the Larynx
en_description:
  - hyaline, unpaired
  - the only completely closed cartilage around the larynx

memorix_page: 211
object_id: cartilago cricoidea
latin: cartilago cricoidea
en: Cricoid cartilage
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago corniculata 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2,cartilago thyroidea

general_description:
  <b>The cricoid cartilage </b>(<i>cartilago cricoidea </i>from the Greek word “cricoides”, meaning “ring-shaped”) was named after its resemblance to a signet ring.

  <b>The anastomosis of Galen </b>is an anastomosis between the sensory branches of the superior laryngeal nerve and recurrent laryngeal nerve. It is located on the dorsal side of the cricoid cartilage.

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 525 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 371 characters]

syntopy:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 151 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2.1.1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: facies articularis thyroidea
en_description: - on the lateral border of the lamina and arch
memorix_page: 211
latin: facies articularis arytenoidea
en: Thyroid articular surface
cell_type: 0
color: 55c2d0
hit_position: -0.35211,0.64023,21.61298
hit_normal: -8.84231,11.18516,12.63902
body_rotation: 331.37870,128.82430,30.76367
object_id:
  cartilago cricoidea,!vertebrae cervicales c4,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7,!musculus arytenoideus obliquus


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: Cartilages of the Larynx
en_description: - hyaline, paired
memorix_page: 211
object_id: cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!cartilago thyroidea
latin: cartilago arytenoidea
en: Arytenoid cartilage
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago corniculata 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2,cartilago thyroideaos hyoideum,

clinical_notes:
  <b>Palsy of the posterior cricoarytenoid </b>prevents patency through the rima glottidis during inspiration.

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 525 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 371 characters]

syntopy:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 151 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: basis
en_description: - points ventromedially
memorix_page: 211
latin: processus vocalis
en: Vocal process
cell_type: 0
color: c365d4
hit_position: -0.21052,0.69744,21.93843
hit_normal: -4.18278,-3.89587,-0.48934
body_rotation: 355.76440,45.21113,355.74480
object_id:
  cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!cartilago thyroidea,!musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,!musculus thyroarytenoideus 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: basis
en_description: - points dorsolaterally
memorix_page: 211
latin: processus muscularis
en: Muscular process
cell_type: 0
color: e73849
hit_position: -0.21237,0.69553,21.93004
hit_normal: -16.15284,6.08510,0.03898
body_rotation: 0.00080,107.68380,-0.00250
object_id:
  cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!cartilago thyroidea,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3.2.3
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: basis
en_description: - concave
memorix_page: 211
latin: facies articularis cricoidea *2
en: Cricoid articular surface *2
cell_type: 0
color: 86d465
hit_position: -0.21496,0.70840,21.92478
hit_normal: -10.68946,4.49768,-8.62263
body_rotation: 11.29949,105.60860,324.95560
object_id:
  cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!cartilago thyroidea,!cartilago cricoidea!articulatio cricothyroidea,!articulatio cricoarytenoidea,!musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: Cartilages of the Larynx
en_description:
  - cartilage of the epiglottis
  - elastic, unpaired

memorix_page: 211
object_id: cartilago epiglottica
latin: cartilago epiglottica
en: Epiglottic cartilage
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago corniculata 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2,cartilago thyroidea

general_description:
  <b>Taste receptors </b>are located in the mucosa of the dorsal side of the epiglottis and the aryepiglottic fold.

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 525 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 371 characters]

syntopy:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 151 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4.1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: cartilago epiglottica
en_description: - protrudes dorsocranially into the pharynx
memorix_page: 211
latin: Lamina *33
en: Lamina *2
cell_type: 0
color: 69a38f
hit_position: 0.04451,-0.08941,22.36227
hit_normal: -0.44816,10.12794,2.08830
body_rotation: 349.26150,174.80480,0.97056
object_id:
  cartilago epiglottica,!tunica mucosa laryngis,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!vertebrae cervicales c3,!vertebrae cervicales c4,!vertebrae cervicales c5,!vertebrae cervicales c6,!vertebrae cervicales c7


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: Cartilages of the Larynx
memorix_page: 211
object_id: cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago corniculata 2
latin: cartilago corniculata
en: Corniculate cartilage
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - elastic, paired
  - attaches to the apex of the arytenoid cartilage
  - forms the corniculate tubercle

related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2,cartilago thyroidea


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Cartilages of the Larynx
parent: Cartilages of the Larynx
memorix_page: 211
latin: cartilago cuneiformis
en: Cuneiform cartilage
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - elastic, paired
  - is located laterocranially to the corniculate cartilage
  - is embedded in the aryepiglottic fold
  - forms the cuneiform tubercle


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Ligaments of the Larynx
parent: Extrinsic membranes - true ligaments
memorix_page: 212
object_id: membrana thyrohyoidea
latin: membrana thyrohyoidea
en: Thyrohyoid membrane
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2,cartilago thyroidea

general_description:
  <b>The triticeal cartilage </b>( <i>cartilagines tritcae</i>) is a sesamoid cartilage within the thyrohyoid ligament.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Ligaments of the Larynx
parent: Extrinsic membranes - true ligaments
memorix_page: 212
latin: ligamentum cricothyroideum
en: Cricothyroid ligament
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - extends from the caudal margin of the thyroid cartilage to the cranial margin of the cricoid cartilage
  - keeps the conus elasticus in the midline, located ventrally to it


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Ligaments of the Larynx
parent: Extrinsic membranes - true ligaments
en_description: - connects the stalk of the epiglottis to the internal surface of the thyroid cartilage
memorix_page: 212
object_id: ligamentum thyroepiglotticum
latin: ligamentum thyroepiglotticum
en: Thyro-epiglottic ligament
cell_type: 0
master_object: cartilago epiglottica
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Ligaments of the Larynx
parent: membrana fibroelastica laryngis
memorix_page: 212
object_id: membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2
latin: membrana quadrangularis
en: Quadrangular membrane
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - extends from the vestibular fold up to the lateral margin of the epiglottic cartilage
  - its cranial margin underlies the aryepiglottic fold

related_objects:
  os hyoideum,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 1,musculus cricothyroideus obliqua 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2,cartilago thyroidea


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 6.1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Ligaments of the Larynx
parent: membrana quadrangularis
memorix_page: 212
object_id: ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2
latin: ligamentum vestibulare
en: Vestibular ligament
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the thickened caudal margin of the quadrangular membrane extending from the dorsal surface of the thyroid cartilage to the ventrolateral surface of the arytenoid cartilage
  - the false ligament underlying the vestibular fold

related_objects:
  os hyoideum,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago cricoidea,membrana quadrangularis 1,cartilago corniculata 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,cartilago cricoidea,membrana quadrangularis 2,cartilago corniculata 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Ligaments of the Larynx
parent: membrana fibroelastica laryngis
memorix_page: 212
object_id: conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2
latin: Conus elasticus
en: Conus elasticus
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - extends from the vocal folds to the internal circumference of the cricoid cartilage
  - is weakened in the midline
  - is continuously connected to the cricothyroid ligament

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 222 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 7.1
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Ligaments of the Larynx
parent: Conus elasticus
memorix_page: 212
object_id: ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2
latin: ligamentum vocale
en: Vocal ligament
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - an elastic ligament forming the cranial margin of the conus elasticus
  - extends from the middle and dorsal parts of the thyroid cartilage to the dorsal part of the vocal process

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 222 characters]


system: respiratory
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Intrinsic laryngeal muscles
parent: musculus cricothyroideus
memorix_page: 213
object_id: musculus cricothyroideus recta 1,musculus cricothyroideus recta 2
latin: pars recta m. cricothyroidei
en: Cricothyroid straight part
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2,cartilago thyroidea

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 525 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 371 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Larynx
sub_group: Intrinsic laryngeal muscles
parent: Lateral group of crycothyroid
memorix_page: 213
object_id: musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2
latin: musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis
en: Lateral cricoarytenoid
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>course:</b>from the cranial part of the lateral margin of the cricoid cartilage to the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage
  <b>function: </b> moves the muscular process ventrolaterally, adducting the vocal cords and closing the intermembranous part of the rima glottidis

related_objects:
  os hyoideum,membrana thyrohyoidea,ligamentum thyrohyoideum medianum,ligamentum cricothyroideum medianum,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago epiglottica,membrana quadrangularis 1,membrana quadrangularis 2,cartilago cricoidea,cartilago arytenoidea 1,cartilago arytenoidea 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus posterior 2,ligamentum vestibulare 1,ligamentum vestibulare 2,ligamentum vocale 1,ligamentum vocale 2,musculus thyroarytenoideus 1,musculus thyroarytenoideus 2,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 1,musculus cricoarytenoideus lateralis 2,conus elasticus 1,conus elasticus 2,musculus arytenoideus obliquus,musculus arytenoideus transversus,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 1,musculus arytenoideus epiglottica 2

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 525 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 371 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Trachea
sub_group: Internal structure of trachea
parent: Internal structure of trachea
memorix_page: 214
object_id: tunica mucosa trachealia
latin: tunica mucosa trachealia
en: Mucosa and submucosa of trachea
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago thyroidea,cartilago cricoidea,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,os hyoideum,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,atlas c1,axis c2,bronchus principalis dexter,bronchus principalis sinister,membrana thyrohyoidea

blood_supply:
  rami tracheales arterieae thyroideae inferioris 2,rami tracheales arterieae thyroideae inferioris 1,rami pharyngeales arterieae thyroideae inferioris,rami oseophageales arterieae thyroideae inferioris,arteria thyroidea inferior,arteria laryngea inferior,ramus bronchiales superiore aortae thoracicae descendentis,ramus bronchiales inferiores aortae thoracicae descendentis,vena thyroidea inferior 1,vena thyroidea inferior 2,vena laryngea inferior,venae oesophageales

innervation:
  plexus oesophageus,rami tracheales nervi laryngei recurrentis,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 2,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 1,nervus laryngeus recurrens 2,nervus laryngeus recurrens 1,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2

syntopy:
  Oesophagus,Larynx,glandula thyroidea,arteria subclavia sinistra,arteria carotis communis sinistra,truncus brachiocephalicus,arcus aortae,rami tracheales nervi laryngei recurrentis,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 2,rami laryngei nervi laryngei recurrentis 1,nervus laryngeus recurrens 2,nervus laryngeus recurrens 1,vena cava superior,vena azygos


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Trachea
sub_group: External structure of trachea
parent: Trachea
memorix_page: 214
en: External structure of trachea
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The trachea is <b>connected to the larynx at the level of the vertebra C6</b>. It passes through the superior mediastinum and <b>bifurcates into the two main bronchi </b>at the <b>level of the vertebra T4</b>. It is <b>composed of 15-20 hyaline</b>, <b>C-shaped </b>dorsally opened <b>cartilages</b>, which are interconnected by a fibromuscular membrane.

general_description:
  <b>Proportions of the trachea:
  </b>length 10-11 cm,
  diameter 14-18 mm. 

  <b>The ventral surface of the oesophagus </b>is in contact with the flexible membranous wall of the trachea <i>(paries membranaceus tracheae)</i>. This allows ventral extension of the esophageal wall during swallowing.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Tracheotomy </b>is a surgical procedure in which a horizontal or longitudinal incision through the ventral side of the trachea is performed. An upper tracheotomy <i>(tracheotomia superior) </i>is performed below the cricoid cartilage and above the isthmus of the thyroid gland. A lower tracheotomy (tracheotomia inferior) is performed below the isthmus of the thyroid gland at the level of the third tracheal cartilage. The resulting hole (stoma) of tracheotomy is called a tracheostomy. 

  <b>A congenital tracheo-oesophageal fistula </b>is a persisting communication between the respiratory and digestive tracts caused by incomplete separation of the oesophagus and the trachea. 

  <b>Endotracheal intubation </b>is the placement of a tube into the trachea through the oral cavity (orotracheal intubation) or the nasal cavity (nasotracheal intubation) to allow ventilation. 

  <b>Postintubation tracheal stenosis </b>occurs in 1 % of intubated patients. It usually becomes symptomatic after 3 months of intubation. Patients usually present with emphysema and inspiratory stridor. The stenosis can be treated by interventional bronchoscopy or by surgical resection of the trachea. 

  <b>75 % of aspirated foreign bodies </b>enter the right main bronchus due to its wider diameter and its direct continuity with the trachea.


system: respiratory
main_group: Trachea
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: Syntopy
memorix_page: 214
latin: pars cervicalis
en: Cervical part
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the continuation of the larynx at the level of the vertebra C6
  - is located within the visceral space of the neck
   <b>ventrally:</b> isthmus of the thyroid gland
   <b>laterally:</b> thyroid gland, carotid sheath and recurrent laryngeal nerve (dorsolaterally)
   <b>dorsally:</b> oesophagus


system: respiratory
main_group: Trachea
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: Syntopy
memorix_page: 214
latin: pars thoracica
en: Thoracic part
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - begins at the level of the cranial margin of the manubrium of the sternum
  - passes through the superior mediastinum
  - splits into the two main bronchi at the level of the T4 vertebra
  - near the bifurcation, its left side touches the arch of the aorta


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Bronchi
sub_group: Bronchial tree
parent: Bronchi
memorix_page: 215
latin: arbor bronchialis
en: Bronchial tree
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The bronchi <b>arise from the tracheal bifurcation </b>at the level of the sternal angle and <b>successively divide to form the bronchial tree</b>. <b>The main bronchi </b>run in the mediastinum and <b>divide into the lobar bronchi </b>in the hilum of the lung. Peripheral parts of the bronchial tree are located within the lung tissue itself. Cartilaginous rings are incomplete, dorsally opened C-shaped rings in the primary bronchi. They become irregular and infrequent towards the periphery of the bronchial tree.

general_description:
  <b>The broncho pericardial membrane </b>extends between the main bronchi, oesophagus and the dorsal side of the pericardium, and forms the borderline between the anterior and posterior mediastinum.

  <b>Length of the main bronchi: </b>The right main bronchus is about 3 cm, while the left main bronchus is 4-5 cm. 

  <b>Intrapulmonary lymph nodes </b>are located around the branching points of the segmental bronchi in the lungs. 

  <b>Bronchopulmonary lymph nodes </b>are located around the lobar bronchi in the hilum of the lung. <b>Tracheobronchial lymph nodes </b>are located around the tracheal bifurcation.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Bronchi
sub_group: Bronchial tree
parent: arbor bronchialis
en_description: - shorter, wider, more vertical and less deviated from the tracheal axis
memorix_page: 215
object_id: bronchus principalis dexter
latin: bronchus principalis dexter
en: Right main (primary) bronchus
cell_type: 0
master_object: bronchus principalis dexter
innervation: nervus vagus 2,nervus vagus 1
related_objects:
  tunica mucosa trachealia,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago thyroidea,cartilago cricoidea,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,os hyoideum,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,atlas c1,axis c2,membrana thyrohyoidea,bronchus principalis sinister

blood_supply:
  arteria intercostalis posterior tertia 2,arteria intercostalis posterior tertia 1,arteria intercostalis posterior quarta 1,arteria intercostalis posterior quinta 1,arteria intercostalis posterior sexta 1,arteria intercostalis posterior septima 1,arteria intercostalis posterior octava 1,arteria intercostalis posterior nona 1,arteria intercostalis posterior nona 2,arteria intercostalis posterior octava 2,arteria intercostalis posterior septima 2,arteria intercostalis posterior sexta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quinta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quarta 2,aorta thoracica,vena intercostalis posterior quarta 1,vena intercostalis posterior octava 1,vena intercostalis posterior septima 1,vena intercostalis posterior sexta 1,vena intercostalis posterior quinta 1,vena intercostalis posterior quarta 2,vena intercostalis posterior quinta 2,vena intercostalis posterior sexta 2,vena intercostalis posterior septima 2,vena hemiazygos accessoria,vena azygos

syntopy:
  Pulmonary arteries,Pulmonary veins,arcus aortae,vena azygos,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,Oesophagus


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Bronchi
sub_group: Bronchial tree
parent: bronchus principalis dexter
memorix_page: 215
object_id: bronchus lobaris superior dexter
latin: bronchus lobaris superior dexter
en: Right superior lobar bronchus
cell_type: 0
master_object: bronchus principalis dexter
innervation: nervus vagus 2,nervus vagus 1
related_objects:
  tunica mucosa trachealia,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago thyroidea,cartilago cricoidea,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,os hyoideum,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,atlas c1,axis c2,membrana thyrohyoidea,bronchus principalis dexter,bronchus lobaris superior dexter,bronchus segmentalis apicalis,bronchus segmentalis posterior,bronchus segmentalis anterior 2,bronchus lobaris medius,bronchus segmentalis lateralis,bronchus segmentalis medialis,bronchus lobaris inferior dexter,bronchus segmentalis superior 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis medialis or cardiacus 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis anterior 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis lateralis 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis posterior 2

blood_supply:
  arteria intercostalis posterior tertia 2,arteria intercostalis posterior tertia 1,arteria intercostalis posterior quarta 1,arteria intercostalis posterior quinta 1,arteria intercostalis posterior sexta 1,arteria intercostalis posterior septima 1,arteria intercostalis posterior octava 1,arteria intercostalis posterior nona 1,arteria intercostalis posterior nona 2,arteria intercostalis posterior octava 2,arteria intercostalis posterior septima 2,arteria intercostalis posterior sexta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quinta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quarta 2,aorta thoracica,vena intercostalis posterior quarta 1,vena intercostalis posterior octava 1,vena intercostalis posterior septima 1,vena intercostalis posterior sexta 1,vena intercostalis posterior quinta 1,vena intercostalis posterior quarta 2,vena intercostalis posterior quinta 2,vena intercostalis posterior sexta 2,vena intercostalis posterior septima 2,vena hemiazygos accessoria,vena azygos

syntopy:
  Pulmonary arteries,Pulmonary veins,arcus aortae,vena azygos,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,Oesophagus


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Bronchi
sub_group: Bronchial tree
parent: arbor bronchialis
en_description: - longer, narrower, laterocranially concave and more deviated from the tracheal axis
memorix_page: 215
object_id: bronchus principalis sinister
latin: bronchus principalis sinister
en: Left main (primary) bronchus
cell_type: 0
master_object: bronchus principalis sinister
innervation: nervus vagus 2,nervus vagus 1
related_objects:
  bronchus divisio superior,bronchus lingularis,bronchus lingularis inferior,bronchus lingularis superior,bronchus lobaris inferior sinister,bronchus lobaris superior sinister,bronchus principalis sinister,bronchus segmentalis anterior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis anterior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis lateralis 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis medialis or cardiacus 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis posterior 1,bronchus segmentalis superior 1,tunica mucosa trachealia,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago thyroidea,cartilago cricoidea,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,os hyoideum,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c3,atlas c1,axis c2,membrana thyrohyoidea

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 966 characters]

syntopy:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 100 characters]


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Bronchi
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: Syntopy
memorix_page: 215
latin: arcus aortae
en: Aortic arch
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  superiorly convex, starts anteriorly to the left main bronchus, as it curves it becomes superior, and finally posterior to the left main bronchus


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Bronchi
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: Syntopy
memorix_page: 215
latin: vena azygos
en: Azygos vein
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - ascends ventrally to the right main bronchus, arches over it and opens into the superior vena cava


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis dextrum *1
en_description: - the concave base resting on the diaphragm
memorix_page: 216
latin: basis pulmonis dextrum*1
en: Base of lung *1
cell_type: 0
color: 289cba
hit_position: -2.96753,13.94561,-1.87978
hit_normal: -3.43911,-52.02425,19.55345
body_rotation: 289.78490,14.27340,346.53760
object_id:
  lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis dextrum *1
en_description: projects towards the cervical pleura
memorix_page: 216
latin: apex pulmonis dextrum *1
en: Apex of lung *1
cell_type: 0
color: 28ba7f
hit_position: -2.35405,19.62612,-1.61189
hit_normal: -27.35930,37.36180,29.83513
body_rotation: 33.19879,49.60250,32.75807
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis dextrum *1
en_description: - a place where the structures of the root of the lung enter the lung
memorix_page: 216
latin: hilum pulmonis dextrum *1
en: Hilum of lung *1
cell_type: 0
object_id:
  hilum pulmoris dextri,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis dextrum *1
en_description: - the vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and bronchi passing through the hilum
memorix_page: 216
latin: radix pulmonis dextrum *1
en: Root of lung *1
cell_type: 0
color: e27b1a
hit_position: -1.52935,17.40101,-1.48620
hit_normal: 19.65069,-0.49940,23.99908
body_rotation: 0.00190,316.21210,-0.00182
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,!hilum pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *1
en_description: - the concave base resting on the diaphragm
memorix_page: 216
latin: basis pulmonis sinistrum *2
en: Base of lung *2
cell_type: 0
color: 289cba
hit_position: 2.54132,14.40012,-1.31694
hit_normal: -1.68440,-43.57825,31.14740
body_rotation: 304.83200,-358.44010,-1.28049
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *1
en_description: projects towards the cervical pleura
memorix_page: 216
latin: apex pulmonis sinistrum *2
en: Apex of lung *2
cell_type: 0
color: 28ba7f
hit_position: 2.51385,19.42818,-1.34003
hit_normal: 25.60992,35.14738,31.72960
body_rotation: 29.77724,-309.99440,-329.37550
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *1
en_description: - a place where the structures of the root of the lung enter the lung
memorix_page: 216
latin: hilum pulmonis sinistrum *2
en: Hilum of lung *2
cell_type: 0
object_id:
  hilum pulmonis sinistri,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *1
en_description: - the vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and bronchi passing through the hilum
memorix_page: 216
latin: radix pulmonis sinistrum *2
en: Root of lung *2
cell_type: 0
color: e27b1a
hit_position: 0.97403,16.35769,-1.79097
hit_normal: -20.39826,0.13393,23.69961
body_rotation: 357.69460,-39.63188,-358.09190
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!ligamentum pulmonalepulmonis sinistri,!hilum pulmonis sinistri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 6
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Basic parts of the Lungs
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *1
memorix_page: 216
latin: lingula pulmonis sinistri *1
en: Lingula of left lung *1
cell_type: 0
color: ba289e
hit_position: -2.02081,14.76466,0.90095
hit_normal: 22.86824,17.47270,28.34930
body_rotation: 16.58618,316.97290,345.08040
en_description:
  - a thin slip of pulmonary tissue extending from the upper lobe of the left lung
  - the analogue of the middle lobe on the right lung

object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Surfaces and borders
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *2
en_description: - faces the ribs
memorix_page: 216
latin: facies costalis *3
en: Costal surface
cell_type: 0
color: 4071d1
hit_position: -4.28334,16.43969,-1.28240
hit_normal: -60.37653,5.44807,7.77511
body_rotation: 0.75019,81.01468,4.73343
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,!lobus superior pulmonis dextri,!lobus medius pulmonis dextri,!lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,!fissura obliqua pulmonis dextri,!fissura horizontalis pulmonis dextri,!fissura obliqua pulmo sinister,!fissura obliqua pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Surfaces and borders
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *2
en_description: - faces the diaphragm
memorix_page: 216
latin: facies diaphragmatica *3
en: Diaphragmatic surface
cell_type: 0
color: 40c9d1
hit_position: -3.05727,14.06733,-1.16904
hit_normal: 23.03903,-29.49068,18.26848
body_rotation: 335.07850,294.73900,42.44281
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,!fissura horizontalis pulmonis dextri,!fissura obliqua pulmo sinister,!fissura obliqua pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Surfaces and borders
parent: pulmonis sinistrum *2
memorix_page: 216
latin: facies interlobares *3
en: Interlobar surfaces
cell_type: 0
color: 99d140
hit_position: -4.32803,15.01582,-1.47175
hit_normal: -35.14058,24.75098,6.21692
body_rotation: 6.58620,79.25430,31.14783
en_description:
  - formed by grooves between the lobes
  - face neighbouring lobes and are covered by the visceral pleura

object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,!fissura horizontalis pulmonis dextri,!fissura obliqua pulmo sinister,!fissura obliqua pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Surfaces and borders
parent: pulmonis dextrum *2
en_description: - faces the ribs
memorix_page: 216
latin: facies costalis *4
en: Costal surface
cell_type: 0
color: 4071d1
hit_position: 4.05497,15.48155,-0.45678
hit_normal: 49.51322,5.31173,2.85475
body_rotation: 0.16048,-271.80420,-354.91850
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,!fissura horizontalis pulmonis dextri,!fissura obliqua pulmo sinister,!fissura obliqua pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Pulmonary lobes
parent: Pulmones
memorix_page: 217
latin: lobi pulmonis
en: Pulmonary lobes
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The lung is a <b>paired organ covered with the pleura </b>and located in the <b>pleural cavity</b>. Pulmonary tissue consists of the bronchial tree, connective tissue (the pulmonary intersti ti um), vessels, nerves and lymphatic nodes. The lungs are divided into <b>lobes each with its own lobar bronchus</b>. The lobes are further divided into segments, defined as the area ventilated by a segmental bronchus and perfused by a branch of the pulmonary artery. The <b>right lung has 3 lobes </b>and 10 segments; the left lung has <b>2 lobes </b>and usually 8 segments.

general_description:
  <b>The pulmonary interstitialium </b>is the connective tissue supporting the alveoli. It can be divided into: 
  1. peribronchial and perihilar fibrous tissue 
  2. interalveolar (or more simply alveolar), interlobular and intersegmental septa.

  <b>Surfactant </b>is a superficial layer of proteins and phospholipids lining the alveoli. It reduces surface tension, which prevents the alveoli from collapsing. It is an acronym from <b>SURF</b>ace <b>ACT</b>ive <b>A</b>ge<b>NT</b>. 

  <b>The airways of the lungs </b>ramify as the bronchial tree (first 14 levels), 
  which serves for the air conduction, and then as the alveolar tree (other 9 levels) which serves for the air conduction and respiration. <b>The medial basal segment S VII </b>(<i>segmentum basale mediale</i>) of the left lung is present in approximately 10 % of cases. In the other cases, it is incorporated into S VIII.

  There are many <b>anastomoses </b>between the pulmonary and bronchial vascular beds (arterio-arterial and veno-venous) as well as between the arteries and veins in the pulmonary bed (arterio-venous). These connections may functions as right left shunts. 

  <b>Nociceptive neurons </b>(neurons perceiving the pain) are present in small numbers in the lungs and visceral pleura (lungs and visceral pleura do not have pain sensation). The only exception is the area around the hilum of the lung supplied by the vagus nerve.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Pulmonary embolism </b>is a life threatening condition, which occurs due to obstruction of the pulmonary artery or any of its branches. In most cases it is due to a thromboembolism originating in the pelvic veins or the deep veins of the leg. Infrequently other types of embolism may occur, such as fat embolism (from fractures), amniotic fluid embolism (during delivery), air embolism (during injury) and tumour cell embolism.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Pulmonary lobes
parent: lobi pulmonis
memorix_page: 217
object_id: lobus superior pulmonis dextri
latin: lobus superior pulmonis dextri*1
en: Superior lobe of the right lung*1
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,hilum pulmonis sinistri,hilum pulmoris dextri,bronchus principalis sinister,bronchus principalis dexter,tunica mucosa trachealia,ligamentum pulmonalepulmonis dextri,ligamentum pulmonale pulmonis sinistri,cartilagines tracheales,ligamenta anularia,paries membranaceus,

blood_supply:
  truncus pulmonaris,Pulmonary arteries of the right side,Pulmonary veins of the right side,venae bronchiales 2,vena azygos,vena hemiazygos accessoria,vena intercostalis posterior secunda 2,vena intercostalis posterior tertia 2,vena intercostalis superior dextra,vena intercostalis posterior quarta 2,vena intercostalis posterior quinta 2,vena intercostalis posterior sexta 2,vena intercostalis posterior septima 2,vena intercostalis posterior octava 2

innervation:
  nervus vagus 1,plexus pulmonalis posterior 2,plexus pulmonalis posterior 1,plexus pulmonalis anterior 2,plexus pulmonalis anterior 1,nervus vagus 2

syntopy:
  costa prima 1_r,costa secunda 2_r,os costale 3_r,os costale 4_r,os costale 5_r,os costale 6_r,os costale 7_r,arteria subclavia dextra,pericardium fibrosum,diaphragm,superior vena cava,Oesophagus,azygos vein


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Pulmonary lobes
parent: lobi pulmonis
memorix_page: 217
object_id: lobus superior pulmo sinister
latin: lobus superior pulmonis sinistri *2
en: Superior lobe of the left lung *2
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 418 characters]

blood_supply:
  truncus pulmonaris,Pulmonary arteries of the left side,Pulmonary veins of the left side,ramus bronchiales superiore aortae thoracicae descendentis,ramus bronchiales inferiores aortae thoracicae descendentis,venae bronchiales 1,vena azygos,vena hemiazygos accessoria,vena intercostalis posterior tertia 1,vena intercostalis superior sinistra,vena intercostalis posterior quarta 1,vena intercostalis posterior quinta 1,vena intercostalis posterior sexta 1,vena intercostalis posterior septima 1,vena intercostalis posterior octava 1

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 147 characters]

syntopy:
  costa prima 1_l,costa secunda 2_l,os costale 3_l,os costale 4_l,os costale 5_l,os costale 6_l,os costale 7_l,arteria subclavia sinistra,pericardium fibrosum,diaphragm,vena brachiocephalica sinistra,arcus aortae,aorta thoracica,Oesophagus


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Bronchopulmonary segments
parent: lobus superior *3
memorix_page: 217
object_id: segmentum apicale 1
latin: S I - segmentum apicale
en: Apical segment
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  tunica mucosa trachealia,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago thyroidea,cartilago cricoidea,membrana thyrohyoidea,bronchus principalis dexter,bronchus lobaris superior dexter,bronchus segmentalis apicalis,bronchus segmentalis posterior,bronchus segmentalis anterior 2,bronchus lobaris medius,bronchus segmentalis lateralis,bronchus segmentalis medialis,bronchus lobaris inferior dexter,bronchus segmentalis superior 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis medialis or cardiacus 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis anterior 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis lateralis 2,bronchus segmentalis basalis posterior 2


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2.1.1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Bronchopulmonary segments
parent: lobus superior *4
memorix_page: 217
object_id: segmentum apicoposterius 2
latin: S I + II - segmentum apicoposterius
en: Apicoposterior segment
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  bronchus divisio superior,bronchus lingularis,bronchus lingularis inferior,bronchus lingularis superior,bronchus lobaris inferior sinister,bronchus lobaris superior sinister,bronchus principalis sinister,bronchus segmentalis anterior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis anterior 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis lateralis 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis medialis or cardiacus 1,bronchus segmentalis basalis posterior 1,bronchus segmentalis superior 1,tunica mucosa trachealia,tunica mucosa laryngis,cartilago thyroidea,cartilago cricoidea,membrana thyrohyoidea


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Subsegments of lung parenchyma
parent: Subsegments of lung parenchyma
memorix_page: 217
latin: bronchioli terminales
en: Terminal bronchioles
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the epithelium changes to simple columnar epithelium with exocrine bronchiolar cells (Clara cells)


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3.5
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Subsegments of lung parenchyma
parent: arbor alveolaris
memorix_page: 217
latin: alveoli pulmonis
en: Pulmonary alveoli
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - blind ends (cul-de-sacs) of the bronchial tree proceeding from the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveolar saccules


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Subsegments of lung parenchyma
parent: Subsegments of lung parenchyma
memorix_page: 217
latin: lobulus pulmonis secundarius
en: Secondary pulmonary lobule
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the basic structural and functional unit of pulmonary tissue
  - is ventilated by one terminal bronchiole


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: On the right lung
memorix_page: 218
latin: sulcus costae primae *1
en: Groove for first rib
cell_type: 0
color: 85d636
hit_position: 1.42525,18.23314,-0.19496
hit_normal: -31.37770,5.68298,39.82831
body_rotation: 5.05927,-36.44766,-3.72640
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis dextri,!lobus superior pulmo sinister,!lobus inferior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: On the right lung
memorix_page: 218
latin: impressio cardiaca *1
en: Cardiac impression
cell_type: 0
color: ba2828
hit_position: 1.25538,15.72744,-0.26260
hit_normal: -46.51649,-1.76055,29.52979
body_rotation: 357.58560,-55.25843,-356.52390
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,!pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,!pleura pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: On the left lung
memorix_page: 218
latin: sulcus costae primae *2
en: Groove for first rib
cell_type: 0
color: 85d636
hit_position: -1.36233,19.32445,-0.92496
hit_normal: 25.77747,11.48727,49.50309
body_rotation: 12.04933,328.33250,352.66270
object_id:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,!pleura pulmonis sinistri,!pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,!lobus superior pulmonis dextri,!lobus medius pulmonis dextri,!lobus inferior pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Syntopy
parent: Syntopy
memorix_page: 218
latin: facies diaphragmatica
en: Diaphragmatic surface
cell_type: 5
en_description:
  - is in direct contact with the diaphragm
  - the following three organs are in contact with the lungs through the diaphragm (but do not form impressions):


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Borders and projection of the lungs
parent: Borders and projection of the lungs
memorix_page: 218
latin: margo anterior
en: Anterior border
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - retrosternally between the anterior median line and the sternum
  - cranially recedes from the anterior median line to the lung apex
  - caudally recedes from the anterior median line


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Borders and projection of the lungs
parent: margo anterior
memorix_page: 218
latin: incisura cardiaca
en: Cardiac notch
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - the curved margin around the pericardium on the left lung
  - extends from the 4th sternocostal joint to the 6th rib in the midclavicular line


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Borders and projection of the lungs
parent: Borders and projection of the lungs
memorix_page: 218
latin: fissura horizontalis
en: Horizontal fissure
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - on the right side from the oblique fissure in the midaxillary line along the 4th rib to the sternum


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Borders and projection of the lungs
parent: Borders and projection of the lungs
memorix_page: 218
latin: margo inferior
en: Inferior border
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - at the level of the 6th rib in the midclavicular line
  - at the level of the 8th rib in the midaxillary line
  - at the level of the 10th rib in the scapular line


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 8
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Structures in the hilum of the lung
parent: Pulmones
memorix_page: 219
en: Structures in the hilum of the lung
cell_type: 1
general_description:
  <b>A mnemonic for remembering the arrangement of the structures in the hilum of the lung </b>(<b>B</b>ronchus, <b>A</b>rtery, <b>V</b>ein in a craniocaudal direction): <b>BRIGHT IS RIGHT </b>- bronchus on the right is cranial - but not on the left side

  <b>A mnemonic for remembering the position of the vagus and phrenic nerves in relation to the hilum: Vagus nerve </b>- behind the hilum of the lung (“vagus stays in the back”) <b>Phrenic nerve </b>- in front of the hilum of the lung (“<b>phr</b>enic is in the <b>fr</b>ont”)


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Structures in the hilum of the lung
parent: Structures in the hilum of the lung
memorix_page: 219
object_id: hilum pulmoris dextri
latin: hilum pulmonis dextrum
en: Hilum of right lung
cell_type: 5
related_objects:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri,pleura pulmonis dextri,hilum pulmoris dextri,ligamentum pulmonalepulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Structures in the hilum of the lung
parent: Structures in the hilum of the lung
memorix_page: 219
object_id: hilum pulmonis sinistri
latin: hilum pulmonis sinistrum
en: Hilum of left lung
cell_type: 5
related_objects:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,pleura pulmonis sinistri,pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri,hilum pulmonis sinistri,ligamentum pulmonale pulmonis sinistri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Blood supply
parent: vasa publica
memorix_page: 219
en: Veins
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - begin in the interstitial connective tissue and travel independently of the bronchial tree (the larger veins travel with the bronchi)


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Blood supply
parent: vasa publica
memorix_page: 219
latin: benae pulmonales
en: Pulmonary veins
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - two from the right lung and two from the left lung
  - empty into the left atrium of the heart (contain oxygenated blood)


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Blood supply
parent: vasa privata
memorix_page: 219
latin: rami bronchiales
en: Bronchial branches
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - contain oxygenated blood and course along the bronchial tree
  - usually two on the left from the thoracic aorta and one on the right from the third intercostal artery
  - form anastomoses with the bed of the pulmonary artery from the respiratory bronchioles onwards


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 10
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Lymphatic drainage
parent: Pulmones
memorix_page: 219
en: Lymphatic drainage
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  - the superficial and deep lymphatic systems drain lymph to the hilar nodes
  - from the hilar nodes lymph is drained through the bronchomediastinal trunks into the main lymphatic ducts


system: respiratory
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Lymphatic drainage
parent: Lymphatic drainage
memorix_page: 219
en: Superficial system
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  1. plexuses within the subpleural connective tissue
  2. along the pulmonary veins (perivenous location)
  3. there are no interposed lymph nodes before entering the bronchopulmonary nodes


system: respiratory
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Lymphatic drainage
parent: Lymphatic drainage
memorix_page: 219
en: Deep system
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  1. plexuses in the peribronchial connective tissue beginning at the level of the respiratory bronchioles
  2. along the bronchi (peribronchial location)
  3. intrapulmonary nodes are interposed before entering the bronchopulmonary nodes


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 3.2
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Lymphatic drainage
parent: truncus bronchomediastinalis dexter
memorix_page: 219
en: drainage area *1
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  whole right lung, inferior lobe of left lung and both lingular segments of left lung superior lobe (S IV and S V)


system: respiratory
main_group: Lungs
sub_group: Innervation
parent: Innervation
memorix_page: 219
en: Sympathetic innervation
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  thoracic pulmonary branches - in the pulmonary plexus and the periarterial and peribronchial plexuses


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Basic parts of the Pleura
parent: Pleura
memorix_page: 220
en: Basic parts of the Pleura
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The pleura is a <b>smooth glossy membrane </b>lining the thoracic cavity. It <b>consists of a layer of loose subserosal tissue </b>covered by the <b>mesothelium</b>. It is divided into the <b>visceral pleura</b>, which is firmly <b>attached to the surface of the lungs </b>and extends into the interlobar fissures, and the <b>parietal pleura</b>, which <b>covers the inner surface of the thoracic cavity</b>. The <b>pleural cavity is located between these two layers; it </b>contains a small amount of <b>pleural fluid </b>(approximately 15 ml). This permits <b>smooth movements </b>of the lungs and pleura <b>during breathing </b>and <b>ensures negative pressure </b>in the thoracic cavity, keeping the lungs under tension.

general_description:
  <b>Pleural villi </b>are appendages on the visceral pleura around the margins of the pulmonary lobes. The lungs expand into the <b>recesses of the parietal pleura </b>during maximal inspiration. 

  <b>The parietal and visceral pleura </b>are attached to the surrounding structures by several interconnected layers: - the fibrous layer of the pleura (subserosa, subserosal layer) - a layer of loose connective tissue under the pleura (subpleural layer) - intersti ti um of the lung, endothoracic fascia and the intersti ti al connective tissue of the mediastinum .

  <b>The phrenicopleural fascia </b>is a solid adhesion of the endothoracic fascia on the upper surface of the diaphragm to a layer of the subpleural connective tissue and a fibrous layer of the diaphragmatic part of the parietal pleura. Due to this solid adhesion, this diaphragmatic part of the parietal pleura is inseparable from the diaphragm. 

  <b>The parietal pleura </b>contains many pain receptors (“parietal pleura hurts”). In contrast, the visceral pleura contains many mechanoreceptors (“visceral pleura and lungs do not hurt”).

clinical_notes:
  <b>Pneumothorax </b>is an accumulation of gas in the pleural cavity. The cause may be: injury to the thorax, rupture of a subpleural bullae, or iatrogenic (e.g. cannulation of the subclavian vein or puncture of the pleural cavity).

  <b>Fluidothorax </b>is a collection of fluid in the pleural cavity. It may be classified as haemothorax (blood), chylothorax (lymph) or pyothorax (pus and bacteria). If the fluid contains a high content of protein, it is called an exudate. If it is poor in protein, it is called a transudate. 

  <b>Thoracentesis </b>(pleural tap) is a procedure to remove fluid or air from the pleural cavity. A tube is inserted through the 2nd or 3rd intercostal space in the midclavicular line (half-sitting position) for pneumothorax, or through the 6th intercostal space in the anterior or middle axillary line (sitting position) for fluidothorax. It is frequently performed under ultrasound guidance.


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Basic parts of the Pleura
parent: pleura visceralis
object_id: pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri
latin: pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri
en: Visceral pleura of right lung
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,hilum pulmoris dextri,ligamentum pulmonalepulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Basic parts of the Pleura
parent: pleura visceralis
object_id: pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri
latin: pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri
en: Visceral pleuraof left lung
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,hilum pulmonis sinistri,ligamentum pulmonale pulmonis sinistri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Basic parts of the Pleura
parent: Basic parts of the Pleura
memorix_page: 220
object_id: pleura pulmonis dextri
latin: pleura parietalis dextri
en: Parietal pleura of the right lung
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  lobus superior pulmonis dextri,lobus medius pulmonis dextri,lobus inferior pulmonis dextri,hilum pulmoris dextri,ligamentum pulmonalepulmonis dextri,pleura visceralis pulmonis dextri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Basic parts of the Pleura
parent: Basic parts of the Pleura
memorix_page: 220
object_id: pleura pulmonis sinistri
latin: pleura parietalis sinistri
en: Parietal pleura of the left lung
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  lobus superior pulmo sinister,lobus inferior pulmo sinister,hilum pulmonis sinistri,ligamentum pulmonale pulmonis sinistri,pleura viscelaris pulmonis sinistri


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Pleural cupula / dome of pleura
parent: cupula pleurae
en_description:
  - fascia of Sibson (membrana suprapleuralis)
  - the continuation of the endothoracic fascia

memorix_page: 220
en: Suprapleural membrane
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The fascia of Sibson </b>is a continuation of the endothoracic fascia covering the pleural cupula. It extends from the transverse processes of the 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae to the 1st rib.


system: respiratory
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Blood supply
parent: Blood supply
memorix_page: 220
en: Arterial supply and venous drainage
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - parietal pleura 
  - internal thoracic artery and veins, posterior intercostal veins and arteries
  - visceral pleura 
  - veins and arteries of the lungs


system: respiratory
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Innervation
parent: Innervation
memorix_page: 220
latin: parietal pleura
en: Somatosensory innervation
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - costal part, margins of the diaphragmatic part: intercostal nerves
  - middle of the diaphragmatic part, mediastinal part: phrenic nerve
  - pleural cupula: brachial plexus


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Borders and projections of the pleura
parent: Borders and projections of the pleura
memorix_page: 221
en: Anterior borders
cell_type: 5
en_description:
  - the superior interpleural area (area interpleuralis superior/thymica) is bounded by the sternoclavicular joint cranially and the 2nd sternocostal joints caudally
  - from the 2nd to the 4th ribs dorsally and parallel with the sternum
  - from the 4th rib the borders diverge
  - then form the inferior interpleural area (area interpleuralis inferior or pericardiaca)
  - on the right, the border descends vertically along the sternum to the level of the 6th rib
  - on the left , the border turns laterally towards the cartilage of the 6th rib


system: respiratory
custom_hierarchy: 4.3
main_group: Pleura
sub_group: Borders and projections of the pleura
parent: Dorsal border
memorix_page: 221
en: 12th rib
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  (reaches also 2 cm below its level) - paravertebral line
  - the lowest and narrowest part of the pleural cavity


