# region

name: region back
neighbours:
  0:region neck,region spine,region thorax,region shoulder_0,region shoulder_1,region abdomen,region pelvis_0,region pelvis_1


name: region pelvis
neighbours:
  0:region spine,region back,region thigh_0,region abdomen,region pelvis_1;1:region spine,region back,region thigh_1,region abdomen,region pelvis_0


name: region shoulder
neighbours:
  0:region neck,region back,region thorax,region arm_0;1:region neck,region back,region thorax,region arm_1


# content_cns

system: CNS
main_group: Spinal cord
sub_group: Spinal cord - macroscopic appearance
parent: medulla spinalis*2
en_description: C8-T2 - for the brachial plexus
memorix_page: 399
latin: intumescentia cervicalis
en: Cervical enlargement
cell_type: 0
color: c38a32
hit_position: -0.02114,21.68869,-2.02895
hit_normal: -0.92570,-1.07184,20.70990
body_rotation: 0.00000,0.00000,0.00000
object_id:
  medulla spinalis,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!capsula externa,!capsula extrema,!capsula interna,!incisura preoccipitalis,!sulcus calcarinus,!sulcus centralis,!sulcus cinguli,!sulcus collateralis,!sulcus corporis callosi,!sulcus lateralis,!sulcus parietooccipitalis,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!dura mater spinalis,!arachnoidea mater spinalis


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 3.1.1
main_group: Spinal cord
sub_group: Spinal cord – white and grey matter
parent: substantia grisea
en_description: - contains somatomotor neurones and interneurones
latin: cornu anterius
en: Anterior horn
cell_type: 0
color: c2007f
hit_position: -0.05700,24.60626,-1.57962
hit_normal: -2.32606,2.09872,3.74291
body_rotation: 23.04849,31.83231,13.66098
object_id:
  substantia alba,substantia grisea,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!capsula externa,!capsula extrema,!capsula interna,!incisura preoccipitalis,!sulcus calcarinus,!sulcus centralis,!sulcus cinguli,!sulcus collateralis,!sulcus corporis callosi,!sulcus lateralis,!sulcus parietooccipitalis,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!dura mater spinalis,!arachnoidea mater spinalis


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
latin: truncus encephali
en: Brainstem
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The brainstem <b>connects the spinal cord to the diencephalon. Its ventral surface is in contact with the clivus</b> of the occipital bone. Dorsally,<b> it is connected to the cerebellum via the three pairs of cerebellar peduncles.</b> <b>The fourth ventricle lies between the brainstem and the cerebellum</b>. Macroscopically, the brainstem is divided into <b>three parts: medulla oblongata, pons and the midbrain.</b> The brainstem contains nuclei of the cranial nerves, nervous tracts and the reticular formation, which contains<b> the cardiorespiratory centres</b> and is responsible for several phylogenetically old reflexes.

general_description:
  <b>Dorsally, the pons and the rostral part of the medulla oblongata</b> form a slight depression called the rhomboid fossa. The rhomboid fossa is the floor of the fourth ventricle. The neural tube failed to close completely at the rhomboid fossa and thus, the structures of the original basal and alar plates remain separated by the sulcus limitans. The basal plate forms the medial eminence under which motor nuclei are located. The alar plate is separated by the sulcus limitans and contains the somatosensory and special sensory nuclei.

  <b>The decussation of the trochlear nerve</b> (decussatio fibrarum nervorum trochlearium) occurs in the midbrain before the nerve emerges just under the inferior colliculus.

  <b>The cerebral peduncle</b> is formed from the ventral parts of the midbrain, namely the tegmentum and the cerebral crus. The tegmentum forms the posterior part of the cerebral peduncle and the cerebral crus forms the anterior part of the cerebral peduncle. 

  <b>The posterior perforated substance</b> is located in the interpeduncular fossa. It contains the posteriomedial central arteries (arteriae centrales posteromediales) as they enter the brainstem. 

  <b>The oculomotor nerve</b> emerges from the midbrain at the interpeduncular fossa.

  <b>The pontine nucleus of the trigeminal nerve</b> is an obsolete term for the principal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. <b>The intermediate nerve (nervus intermedius)</b> carries parasympathetic and gustatory fibres to the facial nerve. <b>The nuclei of solitary tract</b> are a group of autonomic nuclei; all afferent viscerosensory information is transmitted via these nuclei, including the gustatory information (gustatory part of the solitary nuclei - nucleus gustatorius).

  <b>The interpeduncular nucleus</b> integrates the olfactory and limbic systems with the nuclei of the autonomic nervous system in the brainstem and spinal cord. It plays a role sleep-wake cycle by regulating the rapid eye movement phase of sleep.

  <b>The spino-reticular tract</b> ( tractus reticulo-spinalis) directly transmits pain information to the reticular formation. The reticulo-thalamic tract (tractus reticulo-thalamicus) relays this information to the thalamus. These tracts are involved in the transmission of chronic pain to the cortex. Other ascending tracts (spinothalamic, spinotectal, spinoolivary and spinocerebellar) send collaterals to the reticular formation, which function to modulate the activity of the reticular formation. 

  <b>The parabrachial nuclei ( nuclei parabrachiales)</b> represent a group of nuclei of the RF, situated in the borderline between the pons and midbrain (nearby the superior cerebellar peduncle). Information comes from the nuclei of solitary tract. Functionally, they are involved in pain perception (central pain inhibition, emotional and autonomic component of pain) and in brainstem respiratory centers. 

  <b>The lateral parabrachial nucleus</b> is associated with the descending pain inhibition system and with transmission of affective-emotional component of pain (with cooperation of the hypothalamus and amygdaloid body).

  <b>The medial parabrachial nucleus</b> is associated with gustatory perception (its axons run into the gustatory nucleus of the thalamus - ventrolateral posteromedial nucleus), involved in e.g. gustatory aversion (protects organism against repeated ingestion of inedible, disgusting or toxic food and drinks). <b>The nucleus of Kölliker-Fuse</b> is a part of the pneumotaxic centre. It regulates breathing rate by sending signals, which terminate inspiration.


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Brainsterm divisions
parent: Brainsterm divisions
object_id: medulla oblongata 1,medulla oblongata 2
latin: medulla oblongata
en: Medulla oblongata
cell_type: 0
master_object: Brainstem
tags: maingroup_desc
en_description:
  The medulla oblongata is the caudal most part of the brainstem. The central canal expands rostrally into the medulla oblongata to form the fourth ventricle. The grey matter of the medulla oblongata<b> contains the nuclei of the cranial nerves (n. V, IX, X, XI and XII)</b> as well as several <b>other nuclei including the gracile and cuneate nuclei and the inferior olivary complex.</b> The medullary reticular formation contains the centres for blood pressure and circulation control (the vasomotor centre), c<b>ardiac centres, breathing centres and centres for cranial nerves reflexes.</b>

related_objects:
  os occipitale,cerebellum 1,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Brainsterm divisions
parent: medulla oblongata
en_description: - a paired elevation of the medulla oblongata containing the corticospinal tract
latin: pyramis medullae oblongatae
en: Pyramid
cell_type: 0
color: 0c7f79
hit_position: -0.15687,1.10461,25.35104
hit_normal: -8.98468,-19.67602,-0.17794
body_rotation: 0.00000,21.34924,0.00000
object_id:
  medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Brainsterm divisions
parent: medulla oblongata
latin: pedunculus cerebellaris inferior
en: Inferior cerebellar peduncle
cell_type: 0
color: 4f5a3d
hit_position: -0.43899,1.35843,25.98000
hit_normal: -1.57302,23.51859,-6.21393
body_rotation: 12.84300,172.69750,358.36840
en_description:
  - consists of the restiform and juxtarestiform body
  - connects the medulla oblongata to the cerebellum
  - contains the afferent and efferent tracts of the cerebellum

object_id:
  medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.6
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Brainsterm divisions
parent: medulla oblongata
en_description: - together with the pons forms the rhomboid-shaped floor of the fourth ventricle
latin: fossa rhomboidea
en: Rhomboid fossa
cell_type: 0
color: 5e4a77
hit_position: -0.11304,1.55847,25.87446
hit_normal: -0.04256,8.53563,-1.24580
body_rotation: 6.30172,178.13230,359.79490
object_id:
  medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2

general_description:
  <b>The rhomboid fossa</b> (fossa rhomboidea) maintains its original arrangement. The basal plate forms the medial eminence under which motor nuclei are situated. The alar plate is separated by the sulcus limitans and forms a base for somatosensory and special sensory nuclei.


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Brainsterm divisions
parent: tegmentum mesencephali
latin: formatio reticularis
en: Reticular formation
cell_type: 0
general_description:
  <b>The term “reticular formation”</b> refers to its net-like organisation, where nervous impulses spread out from each other. The contrary occurs in the spinal cord, where afferent signals from peripheral nerves converge.


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: truncus encephali
en: Cranial nerves nuclei
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The cranial nerves nuclei are located in the brainstem. The cranial nerve nuclei are classified according to their main function as efferent (motor) nuclei and afferent (sensory) nuclei.

general_description:
  <b>The branchiomotor nucleus</b> of the facial nerve is shifted ventrolaterally and its fibers form a loop around the abducens nucleus called the internal genu of the facial nerve (crus internum nervi facialis). These fibres form an elevation in the rhomboid fossa called the colliculus facialis. Axons leaving the other branchiomotor nuclei (n. V, IX and X) also form loops, but these loops run around their respective nuclei and do not form elevations on the surface of the brainstem.

  <b>The arcuate nuclei</b> ( nuclei arcuati) are analogues of the pontine nuclei situated in the caudal part of the medulla oblongata at the level of the inferior olive. They are afferent nuclei of the cerebellum. On the surface of the brainstem, the fibres leaving the arcuate nuclei are visible as the anterior external arcuate fibres. They enter the cerebellum as mossy fibres. 

  <b>The trapezoid body</b> (corpus trapezoideum) is formed by the axons of the anterior cochlear nucleus as they cross the midline. It contains small dispersed nuclei (nuclei corporis trapezoidei). After decussating, the axons of the anterior cochlear nucleus join the lateral lemniscus.

  <b>The superior olivary nucleus</b> (nucleus olivaris superior) is associated with the auditory tract. The trapezoid body inhibits the contralateral superior olivary nucleus. These nuclei are involved in sound localization based on the synaptic delay. The centre for horizontal gaze is located in the pons.

  <b>The pontine nucleus of the trigeminal nerve</b> is an obsolete term for the principal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. 

  <b>The nuclei of solitary tract</b> are a group of autonomic nuclei; all afferent viscerosensory information is transmitted via these nuclei, including the gustatory information (gustatory part of the solitary nuclei - nucleus gustatorius).


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Somite somatomotor nuclei
en_description: - levator palpabrae superioris, inferior oblique, superior inferior and medial rectus muscle
latin: nucleus nervi oculomotorii (N. III)
en: Nucleus of oculomotor nerve (N. III)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 00e018
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n3 nucleus nervi oculomotorii,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
  nervus oculomotorius,nervus trochlearis,nervus trigeminus,nervus abducens,nervus facialis,nervus vestibulocochlearis,nervus glossopharyngeus,nervus vagus,nervus accessorius,nervus hypoglossus,os occipitale,cerebellum


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Somite somatomotor nuclei
en_description: - superior oblique muscle
latin: nucleus nervi trochlearis (N. IV)
en: Nucleus of trochlear nerve (N. IV)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: c5e000
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n4 nucleus nervi trochlearis,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus insularis 1

related_objects:
  nervus oculomotorius,nervus trochlearis,nervus trigeminus,nervus abducens,nervus facialis,nervus vestibulocochlearis,nervus glossopharyngeus,nervus vagus,nervus accessorius,nervus hypoglossus,os occipitale,cerebellum


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Somite somatomotor nuclei
en_description: - lateral rectus muscle
latin: nucleus nervi abducentis (N. VI)
en: Nucleus of abducent nerve (N. VI)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: e00000
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n6 nucleus nervi abducentis,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
  nervus oculomotorius,nervus trochlearis,nervus trigeminus,nervus abducens,nervus facialis,nervus vestibulocochlearis,nervus glossopharyngeus,nervus vagus,nervus accessorius,nervus hypoglossus,os occipitale,cerebellum


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Somite somatomotor nuclei
en_description: - intrinsic tongue muscles, genioglossus, hyoglossus and styloglossus
latin: nucleus nervi hypoglossi (N. XII)
en: Nucleus of hypoglossal nerve (N. XII)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 007be0
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n12 nucleus nervi hypoglossi,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Branchial somatomotor nuclei
latin: nucleus motorius nervi trigemini (N. V)
en: Motor nucleus of trigeminal nerve (N. VII)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - innervates muscles of the first pharyngeal arch (masticatory muscles, mylohyoid, anterior belly of digastric, tensor tympani and tensor veli palatini)

object_id:
  n5 nucleus motorius nervi trigemini,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Branchial somatomotor nuclei
latin: nucleus nervi facialis (N. VII)
en: Motor nucleus of facial nerve (N. IX)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: e09a00
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - innervates muscles of the second pharyngeal arch (facial muscles, platysma, stylohyoid, stapedius and posterior belly of digastric)

object_id:
  n9 nucleus nervi facialis,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Branchial somatomotor nuclei
latin: nucleus ambiguus (N. IX)
en: Nucleus ambiguus (N. IX)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 00bfe0
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - innervates muscles of the third, fourth and sixth pharyngeal arch(muscles of soft palate and fauces, muscles of pharynx and oesophagus
  - glossopharyngeal nerve

object_id:
  n9 n10 n11 nucleus ambiguus,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Branchial somatomotor nuclei
latin: nucleus spinalis nervi accessori (N. XI)
en: Spinal nucleus of accessory nerve (N. XI)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 00e090
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - innervates the muscles of the cervical somite origin, innervated by the spinal root and external branch of accessory nerve (ramus externus n. XI), innervation of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius

object_id:
  n11 nucleus spinalis nervi accessori,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Visceromotor nuclei
latin: nucleus accessorius dorsalis nervi oculomotorii Edinger-Westphali (N. III)
en: Accessory nucleus of oculomotor nerve (Edinger-Westphal) (N. III)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 98e000
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - contains the cell bodies of the preganglionic fibres of the oculomotor nerve that pass to the ciliary ganglion
  - innervates the sphincter pupillae and ciliary body

object_id:
  n3 nucleus accessorius dorsalis nervi oculomotorii,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Visceromotor nuclei
latin: nucleus salivatorius superior (N. VII)
en: Superior salivatory nucleus (N. VII)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: c500e0
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - contains cell bodies of the preganglionic fibres that synapse in the pterygopalatine and submandibular ganglia
  - innervates the submandibular, sublingual, small lingual, lacrimal, nasal, palatine and nasopharyngeal glands

object_id:
  n12 nucleus salivatorius superior,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Visceromotor nuclei
latin: nucleus salivatorius inferior (N. IX)
en: Inferior salivatory nucleus (N. IX)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: c500e0
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - contains the cell bodies of the preganglionic fibres that synapse in the otic ganglion
  - innervates the parotid and buccal glands

object_id:
  n9 nucleus salivatorius inferior,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Visceromotor nuclei
latin: nucleus posterior nervi vagi (N. X)
en: Posterior nucleus of vagus nerve (N. X)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: e00078
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - contains the preganglionic fibres that travel in the vagus nerve to various ganglia in the neck, thorax and abdomen
  - provides parasympathetic innervation of internal organs as far as the Cannon-Böhm point (between the midgut and hindgut)

object_id:
  n10 nucleus posterior nervi vagi,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Viscerosensory nuclei
en_description: - receive information from the internal organs via the facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves
latin: nuclei tractus solitarii (N. VII)
en: Nuclei of solitary tract / solitary nuclei (N. VII)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: c063b7
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n7 n9 n10 nuclei tractus solitarii,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Somatosensory nuclei
latin: nucleus spinalis nervi trigemini (N. Vs)
en: Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve (N. Vs)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 63c096
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - receives pain, temperature, crude touch and pressure information from the face
  - afferent information runs via the trigeminal, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves

object_id:
  n5 nucleus spinalis nervi trigemini,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Somatosensory nuclei
en_description: - receives information about discriminative touch from the face
latin: nucleus principalis nervi trigemini (N. Vp)
en: Principal nucleus of trigeminal nerve (N. Vp)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 63c0b3
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n5 nucleus principalis nervi trigemini,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Somatosensory nuclei
latin: nucleus mesencephalicus nervi trigemini (N. Vm)
en: Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve (N. Vm)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 6393c0
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - receives proprioception information from the masticatory and extra-oculars muscles, temporomandibular joint and teeth and their suspensory apparatus
  - afferent information runs via the trigeminal, oculomotor, trochlear and abducent nerve

object_id:
  n5 nucleus mesencephalicus nervi trigemini,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Special sensory nuclei
en_description: - receives information about balance and movement of the head
latin: nuclei vestibulares (N. VIIIv)
en: Vestibular nuclei (N. VIIIv)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 6d00e0
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n8 nuclei vestibulares,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Special sensory nuclei
latin: nucleus cochleares anterior (N. VIIIc)
en: Anterior cochlear nuclei (N. VIIIc)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 9ac063
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - receives auditory information form the spiral organ of Corti of inner ear, the axons run mainly in the lateral lemniscus

object_id:
  n8 nuclei cochleares anterior,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Cranial nerves nuclei
parent: Special sensory nuclei
latin: nucleus cochleares posterior (N. VIIIc)
en: Posterior cochlear nuclei (N. VIIIc)
cell_type: 0
master_object: Cranial nerves nuclei
color: 0054e0
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  n8 nuclei cochleares posterior,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus temporalis 2,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!gyrus cinguli 1

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 216 characters]


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 6.3.5
main_group: Brainstem
sub_group: Nuclei of the brainstem
parent: Nuclei of mesencephalon
latin: nucleus ruber
en: Red nucleus
cell_type: 0
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
  - is located in the rostral part of the tegment, affects the flexor activity of the proximal part of the limbs and forms part of the Papez cerebellar control circuit

object_id:
  nucleus ruber,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1

related_objects:
  os occipitale,os sphenoidale,hypothalamus 1,hypothalamus 2,hyppocampus 1,crus fornicis 1,corpus fornicis 1,columna fornicis 1,corpus mamillare 1,putamen 1,nucleus caudatus 1,ventriculus lateralis 1,corpus callosum 1,hyppocampus 2,crus fornicis 2,corpus fornicis 2,columna fornicis 2,corpus mamillare 2,putamen 2,nucleus caudatus 2,ventriculus lateralis 2,corpus callosum 2,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2

general_description:
  <b>The red nucleus is divided into two parts</b>: the magnocellular part and the parvocellular part. The magnocellular part is made up of large neurones. It is phylogenetically older and is located caudal to the parvocellular part. The parvocellular part dominates in human brains. It is made up of small neurones and is associated with the Papez control circuit

  <b>The red nucleus contains</b> a pigment called lipofuscin, which is responsible for its red colour, which is seen in sections of the brainstem.


system: CNS
main_group: Cerebellum
sub_group: Classification of cerebellum
parent: Cerebellum*1
en_description: - an unpaired ventral part in shape of a worm
latin: vermis cerebelli
en: Vermis of cerebellum
cell_type: 0
color: cbd935
hit_position: -0.05266,1.52311,26.43600
hit_normal: -7.15159,-8.10225,-1.43604
body_rotation: 355.45740,35.82929,356.72720
object_id:
  cerebellum 1,cerebellum 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 1,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 2,!glandula pituitaria 1,!glandula pituitaria 2,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus mamillare 2,!capsula externa,!capsula extrema,!capsula interna,!incisura preoccipitalis,!sulcus calcarinus,!sulcus centralis,!sulcus cinguli,!sulcus collateralis,!sulcus corporis callosi,!sulcus lateralis,!sulcus parietooccipitalis,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2


system: CNS
main_group: Diencephalon
sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
parent: External features of thalamus
en_description: - a rostral narrowing with the anterior nuclei underneath
latin: tuberculum anterius
en: Anterior tubercle
cell_type: 0
color: ffb43b
hit_position: -0.29644,0.83875,27.28886
hit_normal: -8.51526,-10.42083,3.53036
body_rotation: 11.83604,36.96042,8.77384
object_id:
  nuclei anteriores thalami 1,nuclei anteriores thalami 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!corpus callosum 1,!corpus callosum 2,!ventriculus lateralis 1,!ventriculus lateralis 2,!nucleus caudatus 1,!nucleus caudatus 2,!putamen 1,!putamen 2,!claustrum 1,!claustrum 2,!plexus choroideus ventriculi lateralis 2,!columna fornicis 2,!corpus mamillare 2,!corpus fornicis 2,!crus fornicis 2,!hyppocampus 2,!foramen interventriculare 2,!foramen interventriculare 1,!plexus choroideus ventriculi lateralis 1,!columna fornicis 1,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus fornicis 1,!crus fornicis 1,!hyppocampus 1,!commissura fornicis 1,!septum pellucidum,!commissura fornicis 2,!indusium griseum 1,!indusium griseum 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!globus pallidus lateralis 1,!globus pallidus lateralis 2,!globus pallidus medialis 1,!globus pallidus medialis 2


system: CNS
main_group: Diencephalon
sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
parent: External features of thalamus
en_description: - connecting the right and left thalamus
latin: adhesio interthalamica
en: Interthalamic adhesion
cell_type: 0
color: ff3bae
hit_position: -0.01989,1.12689,27.41954
hit_normal: -0.74103,-1.77715,6.54169
body_rotation: 71.88627,40.05285,38.62520
object_id:
  nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!corpus callosum 1,!corpus callosum 2,!ventriculus lateralis 1,!ventriculus lateralis 2,!nucleus caudatus 1,!nucleus caudatus 2,!putamen 1,!putamen 2,!claustrum 1,!claustrum 2,!plexus choroideus ventriculi lateralis 2,!columna fornicis 2,!corpus mamillare 2,!corpus fornicis 2,!crus fornicis 2,!hyppocampus 2,!foramen interventriculare 2,!foramen interventriculare 1,!plexus choroideus ventriculi lateralis 1,!columna fornicis 1,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus fornicis 1,!crus fornicis 1,!hyppocampus 1,!commissura fornicis 1,!septum pellucidum,!commissura fornicis 2,!indusium griseum 1,!indusium griseum 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!globus pallidus lateralis 1,!globus pallidus lateralis 2,!globus pallidus medialis 1,!globus pallidus medialis 2


system: CNS
main_group: Diencephalon
sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
parent: External features of thalamus
en_description: - a dorsal enlargement with the posterior nuclei underneath
latin: pulvinar thalami
en: Pulvinar
cell_type: 0
color: beff3b
hit_position: -0.41013,1.62588,27.14220
hit_normal: -1.05708,20.28463,0.19344
body_rotation: 359.65280,173.59170,0.03900
object_id:
  nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!corpus callosum 1,!corpus callosum 2,!ventriculus lateralis 1,!ventriculus lateralis 2,!nucleus caudatus 1,!nucleus caudatus 2,!putamen 1,!putamen 2,!claustrum 1,!claustrum 2,!plexus choroideus ventriculi lateralis 2,!columna fornicis 2,!corpus mamillare 2,!corpus fornicis 2,!crus fornicis 2,!hyppocampus 2,!foramen interventriculare 2,!foramen interventriculare 1,!plexus choroideus ventriculi lateralis 1,!columna fornicis 1,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus fornicis 1,!crus fornicis 1,!hyppocampus 1,!commissura fornicis 1,!septum pellucidum,!commissura fornicis 2,!indusium griseum 1,!indusium griseum 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!globus pallidus lateralis 1,!globus pallidus lateralis 2,!globus pallidus medialis 1,!globus pallidus medialis 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.2
main_group: Diencephalon
sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
parent: thalamus
en: Thalamic nuclei and white matter
cell_type: 0
tags: maingroup_desc
general_description:
  <b>Thalamic function</b> can be compared an efficient and hard-working secretary delivering news to specialised areas of the brain cortex.

   <b>The VPL and VPM nuclei</b> are collectively known as the ventrobasal complex (nuclei ventrobasales). 

  <b>The sensory neurones in the nuclei of the thalamus</b> are not randomly arranged. They have a somatotopic organisation, which means that specific areas of the body are represented in specific parts of the nuclei. The primary somatosensory cortex also has a similar somatotopic organisation, called the somatosensory homunculus. 

  <b>Specific sensory nuclei</b> have similar organization: <b>Retinotopic organisation</b> refers is the representation of the visual on to the lateral geniculate body. 

  <b>Tonotopic organisation</b> refers to the representation of different frequencies of sound to different parts of the medial geniculate body.

  <b> An example of integration and processing of complex stimuli in the association nuclei of thalamus:</b> Imagine this situation: You are sitting in a superb, expensive restaurant. You have already chosen delicacies which are served by a congenial waiter/waitress. The atmosphere is lifted up by melodic music and bubbles from a beautiful aquarium containing exotic fish. The food looks great, the smell is amazing, and it tastes delicious. The association nuclei are responsible for this complex perception.

  <b>The interpeduncular nucleus</b> integrates the olfactory and limbic systems with the nuclei of the autonomic nervous system in the brainstem and spinal cord. It plays a role sleep-wake cycle by regulating the rapid eye movement phase of sleep.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Thalamic damage</b> is usually caused by ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke. We distinguish the following thalamic syndromes according to their clinical manifestations:

  <b> Posterolateral thalamic syndromes</b> - usually the contralateral somatosensory and sensory afferents are affected as well as pain perception as a result of damage in the thalamo- cortical and cortico-thalamic projection.
  <b> Dejerine-Roussy syndrome</b> (central pain syndrome) is a result of damage in the ventroposterolateral and ventroposteromedial nuclei. It could lead to uncontrollable pain sensation usually without an appropriate response to analgetics or opioids. This disorder is caused by a dysfunction of the thalamo-cortical and cortico-thalamic feedback circuits.
  <b>Medial thalamic syndromes</b> can manifest as thalamic neglect, impairment of consciousness, akinesis, anosognosia (the lack of awareness of one’s own disability) and hypobulia (the lack of emotions). 
  <b>Anterolateral thalamic syndromes</b> usually manifest with contralateral paresis, uncoordinated movements and dysphagia.


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main_group: Diencephalon
sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
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latin: nuclei anteriores thalami (A)
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system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.2.3
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sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
parent: Thalamic nuclei and white matter
en: Lateral group of thalamic nuclei
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system: CNS
main_group: Diencephalon
sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
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system: CNS
main_group: Diencephalon
sub_group: Divisions of diencephalon
parent: epithalamus
latin: glandula pinealis
en: Pineal gland
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en_description:
  - a neuroendocrine gland synthesizing the hormone called melatonin, it communicates reciprocally with the suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus - is involved in circadian and circannual biorhythms
  - has impact on sleep, vigilance, and sexual activity and its regulation

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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
latin: telencephalon
en: Telencephalon
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The telencephalon is the most rostral part of the brain.</b> It develops from the prosencephalon and contains the highest number of neurons of any part of the brain. The surface of the hemispheres consists of the cortex and is folded into a <b>system of grooves and ridges</b>, termed sulci and gyri. The main functions of the telencephalon are <b>consciousness, sensation, voluntary movements and cognitive functions</b> (memory, concentration, etc.).

general_description:
  <b>The corona radiata</b> is a fan-like structure of nervous fibres in the telencephalon projecting into the cerebral cortex.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Brain herniation</b> is the displacement of brain tissue from its normal position. It occurs as a consequence of an expansive lesion in the cranial cavity, such as cerebral oedema, ischaemia, infection, haemorrhage or a tumour. 

  <b>Subfalcine (cingulate) herniation</b> occurs when the cingular gyrus is displaced under the margin of the falx cerebri. Clinical signs are impairment of consciousness and breathing, and pupillar miosis. 

  <b>Transtentorial (uncinate) herniation</b> occurs when the parahippocampal uncus herniates under the margin of tentorium cerebelli. Typical signs are usually ipsilateral mydriasis (caused by compression of the parasympathetic fibres of the oculomotor nerve), contralateral palsy, and impairment of consciousness. This type of herniation is most frequently caused by an epidural hematoma of the middle meningeal artery. Tonsillar herniation occurs when the cerebral tonsils herniate through the foramen magnum, which can be caused by expansive processes in the posterior cerebral fossa. 

  <b>Tonsillar herniation</b> is a life-threatening situation because it results in compression medulla oblongata, which compromises the cardiorespiratory centres. The most common clinical signs of this type of hernia are headache in the occipital region, diplopia, paresis or paralysis and ataxia. Consciousness rapidly deteriorates and death results from cardiorespiratory depression.


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: facies superolateralis lobus frontalis
en_description: - primary motor cortex
latin: gyrus precentralis
en: Precentral gyrus
cell_type: 0
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: facies inferior lobus frontalis
en_description: - prefrontal cortex
latin: gyrus rectus
en: Straight gyrus
cell_type: 0
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hit_normal: 5.15505,-10.79483,27.19746
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object_id:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 822 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The projection fibres</b> leave the hemispheres (or enter the hemispheres) via the internal capsule, apart from the olfactory pathway.


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus parietalis
en_description: - primary somatosensory cortex
latin: gyrus postcentralis
en: Postcentral gyrus
cell_type: 0
color: 00d06a
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus temporalis
en_description: - primary auditory cortex
latin: gyri temporales transversi (Heschli)
en: Transverse temporal gyri of Heschl
cell_type: 0
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object_id:
  lobus temporalis 1,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 1,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 2,!glandula pituitaria 1,!glandula pituitaria 2,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus mamillare 2,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus occipitalis
en_description: - visual association cortex
latin: gyrus occipitotemporalis medialis / gyrus lingualis
en: Medial occipitotemporal / lingual gyrus
cell_type: 0
color: 66e2b0
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object_id:
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system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.5
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: hemisphaerium sinistrum
object_id: lobus insularis 1
latin: lobus insularis
en: Insular lobe / Insula
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cell_type: 0
master_object: hemisphaerium sinistrum
color: 50db6d
tags: subgroup_desc
general_description:
  <b>The ventral part of the insular cortex</b> is responsible for perception of body temperature, pain, itching, touch, perception from viscera and muscles, perception of heart activity and rhythm, perception of the urinary bladder and stomach. It is also responsible for integration of auditory stimuli and motor activity. It is responsible for altering facial expression in response to a familiar song or voice. 

  <b>The dorsal part of the insular cortex</b> is responsible for emotions. It participates in regulation of sympathetic and parasympathetic tone and cooperates with the hypothalamus and reticular formation.


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus limbicus
latin: area subcallosa
en: Subcallosal area/gyrus
cell_type: 0
color: 81288c
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body_rotation: 359.27050,262.02330,354.80850
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus limbicus
latin: gyrus cinguli
en: Cingular gyrus
cell_type: 0
color: 748c28
hit_position: -0.68840,27.59459,-1.01711
hit_normal: 35.26315,1.57234,-7.47635
body_rotation: 359.39580,255.72070,357.62750
object_id:
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: sulci interlobares
en_description: - is situated between the frontal and parietal lobes
object_id: sulcus centralis
latin: sulcus centralis Rolandi
en: Central sulcus of Rolando
cell_type: 0
master_object: Sulci of cerebral cortex
related_objects:
  lobus parietalis 1,lobus parietalis 2,lobus temporalis 1,lobus temporalis 2,lobus occipitalis 1,lobus occipitalis 2,gyrus cinguli 1,gyrus cinguli 2,lobus frontalis 1,lobus frontalis 2


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: Motor areas
en: Primary motor area (BA 4, M1)
cell_type: 0
color: e72525
hit_position: -1.32479,29.16959,-0.62372
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en_description:
  <b>Location</b>: precentral gyrus
  <b>Afferents</b>: from the premotor and primary somatosensory areas and ventral lateral complex of thalamus
  <b>Efferents</b>: via the corticospinal tract to the motor nuclei of spinal cord and via the corticonuclear tract to the motor nuclei of brainstem

object_id:
  lobus frontalis 1,lobus parietalis 1,lobus temporalis 1,lobus occipitalis 1,lobus frontalis 2,lobus parietalis 2,lobus temporalis 2,lobus occipitalis 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: telencephalon
latin: nuclei basales
en: Basal ganglia
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The basal ganglia are <b>grey matter structures located deep within the hemispheres and the brainstem.</b> According to their afferent and efferent connections, the basal ganglia are classified <b>into input, intrinsic and output nuclei.</b> The basal ganglia <b>are interconnected to form several different circuits.</b> They are predominantly involved in <b>the coordination and learned movement patterns execution.</b> However, they also play a role in learning, memory and behaviour.

  <b>Classification according to the connections</b>
  <b>1. Input nuclei</b>
  1.1 Striatum
  1.2 Nucleus accumbens
  <b>2 Inner nuclei</b>
  2.1 Globus pallidus lateral segment
  2.2 Subthalamic nucleus
  2.3 Substantia nigra - compact part
  2.4 Ventral tegmental area of Tsai
  <b>3 Output nuclei</b>
  3.1 Globus pallidus medial segment
  3.2 Substantia nigra - reticular part

general_description:
  <b>The majority of the basal nuclei</b> has origin in the telencephalon (phylogenetically its basal part). In comparison, the globus pallidus and substantia nigra are of the diencephalic origin. The substantia nigra is pushed away from the telencephalon into the tegmentum of midbrain.

  <b>The basal ganglia</b> can be thought of as a filter, which reduces the number of motor patterns entering the thalamus. When a motor pattern reaches the thalamus, it is processed and transmitted to the motor cortex. Then, the corticospinal and corticonuclear tracts transmit it to the motor nuclei of brainstem and spinal cord. The basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor structures of the brainstem control the approved motor pattern and participate in muscle tone control. If the basal ganglia inhibit the transmission of the motor pattern to the thalamus, the motor pattern is not executed.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The hypotonic-hyperkinetic syndrome</b> is characterised by the occurrence of involuntary movements and a decreased in muscle tone. 

  <b>Huntington’s chorea</b> is an autosomal dominant hereditary hyperkinetic syndrome associated with progressive dementia and impairment of behaviour. 

  <b>The hypertonic-hypokinetic syndrome</b> is characterised by a decrease in motor activity and an increased muscle tone motor.


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: corpus striatum (Striatum)
en_description: - localized next to the mediocaudally situated thalamus
object_id: nucleus caudatus 1,nucleus caudatus 2
latin: nucleus caudatus
en: Caudate nucleus
cell_type: 0
master_object: Principal nuclei
related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,atlas c1,axis c2,os occipitale,putamen 1,putamen 2,corpus callosum 1,corpus callosum 2

general_description:
  <b>Fundus striati</b> is a term for the frontobasal fusion of the putamen with head of caudate nucleus.


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: nucleus caudatus
en_description: - the largest part forming the lateral wall of the frontal horn of lateral ventricle
latin: caput nuclei caudati
en: Head of caudate nucleus
cell_type: 0
color: d12424
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hit_normal: -11.56187,-1.42862,0.96879
body_rotation: 1.05705,79.14957,5.49764
object_id:
  nucleus caudatus 1,nucleus caudatus 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 1,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 2,!glandula pituitaria 1,!glandula pituitaria 2,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus mamillare 2,!capsula externa,!capsula extrema,!capsula interna,!incisura preoccipitalis,!sulcus calcarinus,!sulcus centralis,!sulcus cinguli,!sulcus collateralis,!sulcus corporis callosi,!sulcus lateralis,!sulcus parietooccipitalis,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.2
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: corpus striatum (Striatum)
object_id: putamen 1,putamen 2
latin: putamen
en: Putamen
cell_type: 0
master_object: Principal nuclei
en_description:
  - located laterally to the internal capsule
  - it is bordered medially by the lateral medullary lamina of lentiform nucleus and laterally by the external capsule

related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,atlas c1,axis c2,os occipitale,nucleus caudatus 1,nucleus caudatus 2,corpus callosum 1,corpus callosum 2

clinical_notes:
  <b>Chorea</b> is a result of putamen damage. Increased concentration of dopamine leads to involuntary movements resembling a dance.


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: globus pallidus (Pallidum)
object_id: globus pallidus medialis 1,globus pallidus medialis 2
latin: globus pallidus medialis
en: Globus pallidus medial/internal segment
cell_type: 0
master_object: globus pallidus
en_description:
  - represents an output nucleus of the globus pallidus and of the basal nuclei
  - it is connected with the motor nuclei of thalamus and brainstem

related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,atlas c1,axis c2,os occipitale,nucleus caudatus 1,nucleus caudatus 2,putamen 1,putamen 2,corpus callosum 1,corpus callosum 2


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: Nuclei associated with the limbic system
object_id: corpus amygdaloideum
latin: corpus amygdaloideum
en: Amygdaloid body
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - a complex of nuclei located in the pole of temporal lobe, in front of the temporal horn of lateral ventricle
  - functionally, it is involved in the limbic system

related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,atlas c1,axis c2,os occipitale,nucleus caudatus 1,nucleus caudatus 2,putamen 1,putamen 2,


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: Nuclei functionally interconnected with the basal nuclei
object_id: nucleus subthalamicus
latin: nucleus subthalamicus Luysi*2
en: Subthalamic nucleus of Luys*2
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - is involved in the indirect (activating) pathway of basal nuclei which is responsible for activation of the motor thalamic nuclei (output nuclei of the basal nuclei usually have inhibitory effect on the motor thalamus)
  - via the activation of the motor thalamus the motor pattern proposed by the cortex and approved by the basal nuclei is processed

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 104 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Hemibalism</b> is a clinical sign caused by damage of the subthalamic nucleus. It manifests abrupt involuntary movements of the contralateral side of the body that resemble throwing a shot put.


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: Chemical nuclei interconnected with the basal nuclei
en_description: - supplying acetylcholine
object_id: nucleus basalis
latin: nucleus basalis Meynerti (CH4)
en: Basal nucleus of Meynert (CH4)
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 104 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The basal nucleus of Meynert</b> (nucleus basalis) is a structure situated beneath the lentiform nucleus. It extends ventrally to the head of the caudate nucleus and dorsally to the posterior border of thalamus. It consists of a group of diffusely scattered cholinergic neurons inside the innominate substance of Reichert (substantia innominata).


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: Chemical nuclei interconnected with the basal nuclei
en_description: - supplying dopamine
object_id: pars compacta substantiae nigrae
latin: substantia nigra (pars compacta – A9)*2
en: Substantia nigra – compact part (A9)
cell_type: 0
master_object: substancia nigra
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 104 characters]

clinical_notes:
  <b>Parkinson disease</b> is caused by lack of dopamine in the substantia nigra and disequilibrium in the basal nuclei caused by excess of acetylcholine. It manifests as muscle rigidity, hypokinesis, tremor, hypomimia (mask face), monotone speech, and other clinical signs (e.g. early loss of the sense of smell - anosmia or impairment of the sense of taste).


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Basal ganglia
parent: White matter distribution and basal nuclei
object_id: capsula interna
latin: capsula interna
en: Internal capsule
cell_type: 0
master_object: brain capsules
en_description:
  - an important bundle of projections connecting the cortex and subcortical structures, situated laterally to the caudate nucleus and thalamus and medially to the globus pallidus

related_objects:
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system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral white matter
parent: Commissural fibers
object_id: corpus callosum 1,corpus callosum 2
latin: corpus callosum
en: Corpus callosum
general_description: <b>The corpus callosum</b> contains approximately 200 million nerve fibres.
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  - interconnects the neocortical gyri of both hemispheres
  - a large fasciculus of bidirectional tracts

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system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 2.1.1
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral white matter
parent: corpus callosum
latin: rostrum corporis callosi
en: Rostrum of corpus callosum
cell_type: 0
color: 8aa900
hit_position: -0.16305,0.22170,27.23197
hit_normal: -6.95158,-6.74009,-5.96600
body_rotation: 336.38280,45.24963,337.99490
object_id:
  corpus callosum 1,corpus callosum 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 1,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 2,!glandula pituitaria 1,!glandula pituitaria 2,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus mamillare 2,!capsula externa,!capsula extrema,!capsula interna,!incisura preoccipitalis,!sulcus calcarinus,!sulcus centralis,!sulcus cinguli,!sulcus collateralis,!sulcus corporis callosi,!sulcus lateralis,!sulcus parietooccipitalis,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!ventriculus lateralis 1,!ventriculus lateralis 2


system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Other structures of telencephalon
parent: Other structures of telencephalon
object_id: lamina terminalis 1,lamina terminalis 2
latin: lamina terminalis
en: Lamina terminalis
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,atlas c1,axis c2,os occipitale,nucleus caudatus 1,nucleus caudatus 2,putamen 1,putamen 2,medulla oblongata 1,pons 1,mesencephalon 1,hypothalamus 1,thalamus opticus 1,thalamus opticus 2,pons 2,mesencephalon 2,medulla oblongata 2,hypothalamus 2

general_description:
  <b>The lamina terminalis</b> is an embryonic vestige of the unpaired telencephalon impar (medianum). The area in front of the lamina terminalis is termed septum.


system: CNS
main_group: Limbic system
latin: systema limbicum
en: Limbic system
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The limbic system consists of <b>cortical and subcortical structures</b>. <b>The cortical structures are located</b> predominantly on the medial aspect of the cerebral hemispheres. The subcortical structures are located in the basal ganglia, diencephalon, brainstem, and reticular formation. These structures are interconnected through various neural pathways and circuits. The limbic system is responsible for the control of <b>emotions and behaviour, motivation and memory.</b> It also<b> affects the autonomic and somatic nervous systems</b> as well as the <b>hypothalamus-hypophyseal axis.</b> The cortical structures of the limbic system can be classified histologically according to the number of cortical layers. The limbic system is further divided into functional zones based on its main connections.

  <b>Functions of the limbic system</b>
  1. Is involved in integration of sensory inputs
  2. Is involved in the processes essential for preservation ofindividual entity and species (instinct of self-preservation, fight or flight response, etc.)
  3. Affects food and water intake
  4. Affects sexual behaviour, reproduction, and nurture
  5. Affects the emotional aspect of behaviour and memory processes
  6. Affects the autonomic nervous system, hormonal hypothalamic-hypophyseal axisand brainstem centres essential for life (breathing and cardiovascular brainstem centres)

general_description:
  <b>In certain situations, the limbic system</b> can bring out animal-like emotions in humans. Normally, the archicortex (which includes the limbic system cortex) is controlled and by the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is the center of will, self-control, and social empathy. It allows the limbic system to exhibit what is socially appropriate in particular situation. In certain situations, this control can be weakened (alcohol consumption or emotional situations).


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Limbic system
sub_group: Cortical regions of limbic gyrus
parent: systema limbicum
latin: gyrus limbicus
en: Cortical regions of limbic gyrus
cell_type: 1
general_description:
  <b>The term limbus</b> means edge or boundary. The limbic system refers to the group of structures that surround the border between the brainstem and hemispheres. 

  <b>The limbic lobe forms</b> a collar around the corpus callosum on the medial aspect of the hemisphere. The cortical structures of the limbic system (developmentally allocortex) are pushed towards the corpus callosum as the neocortex develops and expands. 

  <b>The allocortex</b> is a phylogenetically old, which comprises 4 % of the hemispheric surface. It consists of the paleocortex and archicortex. 

  <b>The paleocortex</b> is also called the rhinencephalon (“olfactory brain”) and is formed by the olfactory nerve and its connections. 

  <b>The archicortex</b> is also called the “limbic cortex”. 

  <b>The mesocortex represents</b> a transition between the archicortex andneocortex. It is formed by 6 layers, the same as the neocortex, but the microscopic structure and the distribution of its neurones resembles the archicortex. 

  <b>The neocortex</b> is phylogenetically the youngest type of cortex. It consists of 6 layers of neurones and is greatly developed in humans, forming 96 % of the hemispheric surface. 

  <b>Hippocampus</b> means a seahorse in Greek, as the shape of the hippocampal formation resembles a seahorse. The hippocampus is also called cornu ammonis due to its resemblance to the Egyptian deity Ammon.

  <b> In frontal section, the dentate gyrus</b> has the shape of a letter C and seems to “bite” into the hippocampus proper from below.

  <b> The nucleus of stria terminalis</b> (nucleus striae terminalis) connects to nucleus accumbens and the amygdaloid complex. It has a role in the long-term maintenance of fear and anxiety. The immediate fear and anxiety responses of the amygdaloid complex.


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Limbic system
sub_group: Cortical regions of limbic gyrus
parent: Neocortex
latin: area subcallosa*2
en: Subcallosal area*2
cell_type: 0
color: 81288c
hit_position: -0.04657,27.13181,-0.57231
hit_normal: 17.07651,0.81081,1.38971
body_rotation: 0.05246,272.15050,358.60330
object_id:
  gyrus cinguli 1,gyrus cinguli 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!falx cerebri,!tentorium cerebelli,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1


system: CNS
main_group: Limbic system
sub_group: Cortical regions of limbic gyrus
parent: hippocampus (cornu Ammonis)
latin: fimbria hippocampi
en: Fimbria of hippocampus
cell_type: 0
color: 7bd100
hit_position: -0.77474,1.25416,26.82740
hit_normal: -7.84697,-0.05801,-1.00272
body_rotation: 359.33510,85.08193,352.31980
en_description:
  - a bundle leading to the fornix
  - connects the hippocampal formation with the rest of the limbic system

object_id:
  crus fornicis 1,commissura fornicis 1,corpus fornicis 1,columna fornicis 1,hyppocampus 1,crus fornicis 2,commissura fornicis 2,corpus fornicis 2,columna fornicis 2,hyppocampus 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!dura mater cranialis 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!ventriculus lateralis 1,!ventriculus lateralis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 2.1
main_group: Limbic system
sub_group: Subcortical structures of limbic gyrus
parent: Subcortical structures of limbic gyrus
object_id: corpus amygdaloideum
latin: corpus amygdaloideum (amygdala)*2
en: Amygdaloid complex
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>Afferents:</b>
  1 from the association cortex
  2 from the olfactory tract and lateral olfactory gyrus (sense of smell)
  3 from the nuclei of solitary tract (viscerosensory nuclei of cranial nerves) and insular lobe
  4 from the hippocampal formation, thalamus, and hypothalamus
  <b>Efferents:</b>
  1 To the insular lobe, entorhinal area, and septal nuclei
  2 To the thalamus and hypothalamus (via the stria terminalis and amygdalofugal bundle)
  3 To the motor cortex, premotor cortex, and basal ganglia (affecting voluntary and involuntary movements)
  4 To the hippocampus (related to memory retention processes)
  5 To the visceromotor nuclei of cranial and spinal nerves (affects sympathetic and parasympathetic output and responses)

  <b>Neurotransmitter input: </b>acetylcholine (from the basal nucleus of Meynert), norepinephrine (from the locus caeruleus) and dopamine (from the ventral tegmental area of Tsai)
  <b>Function: </b>a center of emotions and fear
  - retention and storage of memories associated with moments charged with emotions
  - recognition and reactions to stimuli associated with negative experiences or unpleasant smells
  - reactions to fear, such as freezing (paralysis), tachycardia, tachypnea, stomach cramps, release of stress hormones, and central increase of pain threshold
  - activity of the amygdaloid complex is also related to pleasant emotions (such as love, desire, and addiction)

  - a group of nuclei located in the pole of the temporal lobe, anterior to the temporal horn of lateral ventricle
  - develops together with the basal ganglia but functionally represents a part of the limbic system

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 257 characters]

general_description:
  <b>Stimulation of the amygdaloid complex</b> increases attention and alertness. Bilateral lesions of the amygdala result in the loss of fear and anxiety (placidity), hyperphagia, hypersexuality, and visual agnosia. This group of symptoms is known as Klüver-Bucy syndrome. The amygdala is also involved in defensive reactions, fear and the fightor- flight reaction. 

  <b>The amygdaloid complex</b> reinforces the retention of memories in the hippocampus during stressful and exciting moments. This explains why we remember important events, such graduation, marriage or the birth of a baby, for our whole life. Even years after the events, we are able to describe them in fine detail.


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Ventricular system of the brain
sub_group: Composition of ventricular system
parent: Composition of ventricular system
object_id: ventriculus lateralis 1,ventriculus lateralis 2
latin: ventriculus lateralis
en: Lateral ventricle
cell_type: 0
tags: maingroup_desc
en_description:
  - a paired ventricle located in the hemispheres of the telencephalon, its horseshoe shape is a result of the development

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 257 characters]

general_description:
  <b>Choroidal enlargement</b> is a projection of the choroid plexus from the central part into the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle. It has an important role in production of cerebrospinal fluid. 

  <b>The superficial layer of the white matte</b>r, termed alveus, merges with the fimbria of the hippocampus (which then joins in the crus of the fornix). It also serves as an insertion for the tela choroidea of the lateral ventricle. The other margin of the tela choroidea is attached to the choroid line located on the roof of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle, near the tail of the caudate nucleus. 

  <b>The cerebral lobe</b>s during brain development gradually form an Ushape circle around the insular lobe, therefore the insular lobe is located deep within the lateral fossa. That is why the lateral ventricle interferes to all cerebral lobes except of the insular one.


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.1.1
main_group: Ventricular system of the brain
sub_group: Composition of ventricular system
parent: ventriculus lateralis
en_description: - the choroid plexus is absent
latin: cornu frontale/anterius ventriculi lateralis
en: Frontal/anterior horn of lateral ventricle
cell_type: 0
color: f3ab34
hit_position: 0.24614,0.52539,27.61426
hit_normal: 14.06970,-4.86719,3.83341
body_rotation: 4.16160,-286.53700,-346.26550
object_id:
  ventriculus lateralis 1,ventriculus lateralis 2,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.3
main_group: Ventricular system of the brain
sub_group: Composition of ventricular system
parent: Composition of ventricular system
en_description: - an unpaired space located between the left and right thalamus and hypothalamus
object_id: ventriculus tertius
latin: ventriculus tertius
en: Third ventricle
cell_type: 0
master_object: ventriculi
tags: maingroup_desc
related_objects:
  os sphenoidale,atlas c1,axis c2,os occipitale,nucleus caudatus 1,nucleus caudatus 2,putamen 1,putamen 2,cerebellum 1,cerebellum 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.2
main_group: Ventricular system of the brain
sub_group: Composition of ventricular system
parent: ventriculus tertius
latin: adhesio interthalamica*2
en: Interthalamic adhesion*2
cell_type: 0
color: d93131
hit_position: -0.02440,1.30190,27.25834
hit_normal: -4.90885,0.40620,0.28509
body_rotation: 359.81070,92.38321,4.53973
object_id:
  ventriculus tertius,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 1,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 2,!glandula pituitaria 1,!glandula pituitaria 2,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus mamillare 2,!capsula externa,!capsula extrema,!capsula interna,!incisura preoccipitalis,!sulcus calcarinus,!sulcus centralis,!sulcus cinguli,!sulcus collateralis,!sulcus corporis callosi,!sulcus lateralis,!sulcus parietooccipitalis,!lobus temporalis 1,!lobus frontalis 1,!lobus occipitalis 1,!lobus parietalis 1,!lobus insularis 1,!lobus insularis 2,!gyrus cinguli 1,!lobus frontalis 2,!lobus parietalis 2,!lobus occipitalis 2,!lobus temporalis 2,!gyrus cinguli 2,!ventriculus lateralis 1,!ventriculus lateralis 2,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2,!claustrum 1,!putamen 1,!nucleus caudatus 1,!nuclei lateralis thalami 1,!lamina medullaris medialis 1,!nuclei anteriores thalami 1,!nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 1,!claustrum 2,!putamen 2,!nucleus caudatus 2,!nuclei lateralis thalami 2,!lamina medullaris medialis 2,!nuclei anteriores thalami 2,!nuclei mediodorsalis thalami 2,!epithalamus 2,!epithalamus 1,!globus pallidus lateralis 1,!globus pallidus lateralis 2,!globus pallidus medialis 1,globus pallidus medialis 2


system: CNS
custom_hierarchy: 1.3.7
main_group: Ventricular system of the brain
sub_group: Composition of ventricular system
parent: ventriculus tertius
en_description: - glial membrane ependyma in lower part of roof
latin: tela choroidea ventriculi tertii
en: Tela choroidea of third ventricle
cell_type: 0
color: eaa712
hit_position: -0.00828,1.54107,27.23415
hit_normal: -1.86030,6.33097,-0.26121
body_rotation: 1.32476,160.99010,359.54360
object_id:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1795 characters]

general_description:
  <b>The tela choroidea of the third ventricle</b> is a duplication of the pia mater and forms the roof of the third ventricle. It is attached to the stria medullaris of the right and left thalamus. The tela choroidea featuring the choroid plexus is divided into two parts and those parts enter the lateral ventricles via the interventricular foramina.


system: CNS
main_group: Ventricular system of the brain
sub_group: Composition of ventricular system
parent: plexus choroideus ventriculi quarti
en_description: - glial membrane in the caudal part of the fourth ventricle
latin: tela choroidea ventriculi quarti
en: Tela choroidea of fourth ventricle
cell_type: 0
color: d931a2
hit_position: -0.01006,1.67013,25.90571
hit_normal: -1.81255,4.02179,-2.01329
body_rotation: 21.14358,153.12090,349.63900
object_id:
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: facies superolateralis lobus frontalis*2
en_description: - primary motor cortex
latin: gyrus precentralis*2
en: Precentral gyrus*2
cell_type: 0
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus parietalis*2
en_description: - primary somatosensory cortex
latin: gyrus postcentralis*2
en: Postcentral gyrus*2
cell_type: 0
color: 00d06a
hit_position: -1.70778,28.58591,-0.78673
hit_normal: -25.07114,9.75543,5.61061
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus temporalis*2
en_description: - primary auditory cortex
latin: gyri temporales transversi (Heschli)*2
en: Transverse temporal gyri of Heschl*2
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus occipitalis*2
en_description: - visual association cortex
latin: gyrus occipitotemporalis medialis / gyrus lingualis*2
en: Medial occipitotemporal / lingual gyrus*2
cell_type: 0
color: 66e2b0
hit_position: -1.17063,26.44294,-1.68181
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object_id:
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system: CNS
main_group: Telencephalon
sub_group: Cerebral cortex
parent: lobus limbicus*2
latin: area subcallosa*2
en: Subcallosal area/gyrus*2
cell_type: 0
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hit_normal: 18.58329,1.18466,-2.66621
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object_id:
  gyrus cinguli 2,!dura mater cranialis 2,!dura mater cranialis 1,!tentorium cerebelli,!falx cerebri,!diaphragma sellae,!cavum trigeminale,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 1,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars calvaria 2,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii anterior,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii medii,!arachnoidea mater cranialis pars fossa cranii posterior,!pia mater cranialis 1,!pia mater cranialis 2,!medulla oblongata 1,!pons 1,!mesencephalon 1,!hypothalamus 1,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!pons 2,!mesencephalon 2,!medulla oblongata 2,!hypothalamus 2,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 1,!infudibulum neurohypophyseos 2,!glandula pituitaria 1,!glandula pituitaria 2,!thalamus opticus 1,!thalamus opticus 2,!corpus mamillare 1,!corpus mamillare 2,!cerebellum 1,!cerebellum 2


# content_digestive

system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
memorix_page: 172
latin: Cavitas oris
en: Oral cavity
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The <b>oral cavity </b>is bounded ventrally by the lips and laterally by the cheeks. The floor of the oral cavity is formed by the oral diaphragm and the roof by the palate. Dorsally, it is continuous through the isthmus of fauces with the pharynx. <b>The dental arches divide </b>the oral cavity into <b>the oral vestibule </b>ventral to the arches and <b>the oral cavity proper </b>dorsal to the arches.

general_description:
  <b>The oral diaphragm </b><i>(diaphragma oris) </i>is a muscular plate under the tongue, which caudally encloses the oral cavity. It consists of the mylohyoid, geniohyoid and anterior belly of the digastric.
   
  <b>The oral vestibule and oral cavity proper communicate </b>between the posterior edge of the third molar and the anterior edge of the coronoid process of the mandible. It is possible to use this gap to place a feeding tube when the mandible is immobilised in the treatment of a fracture. Small gaps between the teeth <i>(tremata) </i>are other places where the oral cavity proper and oral vestibule communicate.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Anaemia </b>is a deficiency of hemoglobin in the blood. The transitional zone of the lips is pale in this condition.
   
  <b>Cyanosis </b>is caused by lack of oxygen in the blood, which increases the concentration of reduced haemoglobin. The transitional zone of the lips becomes violet in this condition.
   
  <b>The danger triangle of the face </b><i>(trigonum mortis) </i>is an area richly supplied with blood, located between the angles of the mouth and root of the nose. Venous blood from this area drains into the intracranial venous sinuses, thus there is a risk of a pathological process spreading to the intracranial space from this area.


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Gum
parent: Gingiva
memorix_page: 5
object_id: gingiva
latin: Gingiva*1
en: Gum*1
related_objects: corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula
cell_type: 0
master_object: gingiva
blood_supply:
  arteriae alveolares superiores anteriores,arteria alveolaris posterior superior,arteria alveolaris inferior,vena sublingualis,vena labialis inferior,vena labialis superior,vena submentalis,vena facialis,vena comitans nervi hypoglossi,vena facialis communis,vena lingualis

innervation:
  rami alveolares superiores posteriores nervi maxillaris,ramus alveolaris superior anteriores nervi maxillaris,ramus alveolaris superior medius nervi maxillaris,nervus alveolaris inferior


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Gum
parent: Gingiva*1
en_description: - the gum attached to the alveolus (facing the oral cavity)
memorix_page: 5
latin: gingiva alveolaris
en: Alveolar gingiva / attached gum
cell_type: 0
master_object: gingiva
color: 7b4690
hit_position: -0.78715,-1.67333,23.82586
hit_normal: -11.26578,-21.89676,9.28975
body_rotation: 17.58377,26.51570,8.57138
object_id:
  gingiva,!dentes canini 3,!dentes premolares 4,!dentes premolares 5,!dentes premolares b4,!dentes premolares b5,!dentes morales 6,!dentes morales 7,!dentes morales 8,!dentes premolares b6,!dentes morales b7,!dentes morales b8,!dentes premolares b6 cut,!dentes premorales b6 cut2


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Teeth
parent: Cavitas oris
memorix_page: 6
latin: Dentes
en: Teeth
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The <b>teeth </b>are held in the dental alveoli by a specific type of joint called a <b>gomphosis</b>. They are arranged in two arches: <b>the maxillary and mandibular arcades</b>. Eruption of <b>deciduous teeth </b>begins in the 6th month of life and ends in the 24th month. There are 20 deciduous teeth in total. Eruption of <b>permanent teeth </b>begins in the 6th year and is usually complete by the 30th year. There are 32 permanent teeth in total. The main function of the teeth is <b>mechanical digestion</b>. However they also take part in voice production and maintenance of the proper position of the temporomandibular joint.

general_description:
  <b>Odus </b>(genitive: odontos) is the greek term for tooth. <b>Dental articulation </b>(gliding occlusion) is a term for the mutual contact of the occlusal surfaces of the upper and lower teeth.
   
  <b>Neutrocclusion </b>is a form of occlusion characterised by the upper teeth being located anterior to the lower teeth.
   
  <b>Crossbite </b>is a form of occlusion when part of the lower dental arcade overlaps with the upper arcade.
   
  <b>The old system of the dental formula </b>was based on the first letter of the Latin name of each tooth and its location in the dental arcade:
   
  <b>Deciduous teeth </b>- i1, i2, m1, c, m2
   
  <b>Permanent teeth </b>-M1, I1, I2, P1, C, P2, M2, M3.
   
  <b>A mnemonic </b>for the sequence of permanent teeth eruption based on the old system of the dental formula is: “<b>M</b>ama <b>I</b>s <b>I</b>n <b>P</b>ain, <b>P</b>apa <b>C</b>an <b>M</b>ake <b>M</b>edicine”.
   
  <b>The first molar (M1) </b>is under the most pressure. <b>The third molars (M3) </b>erupt in adulthood and are also called wisdom teeth.
   
  <b>According to the knowledge of tooth eruption</b>, it is possible to estimate the age of a child with a discrepancy of about half a year.
   
  <b>Contact surface of the tooth </b><i>(facies contactus) </i>is an obsolete term for the approximal surface of a tooth.

clinical_notes:
  <b>The periodontal gap </b>is a space richly innervated and supplied with blood, located between the tooth and alveolar where the periodontium is located.
   
  <b>The periapical space </b>is a widening of the periodontal gap around the root apex. Inflammatory of teeth is most likely to occur here .
   
  <b>Occlusal abrasion </b>is abrasion of the teeth caused by wearing out during life.
   
  <b>Gingival recession </b>(receding gums) is a loss of gum tissue caudal to the crown of the tooth. It exposes the neck of the tooth.
   
  <b>A reduction of the alveolar processes </b>is a decrease in height of the alveolar bones.
   
  <b>An orthopantomograph (OPG) </b>is an X-ray image that clearly shows the facial part of the skull with the teeth in both dental arcades.


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Teeth
parent: dentes incisivi
object_id: dentes incisivi 1
latin: dens incisivus medialis (I1)*1
en: Central incisor (21)
related_objects: corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula,gingiva,linguae frontal,linguae distal,palatum durum
cell_type: 0
syntopy: corpus maxillae 2,corpus maxillae 1,mandibula,linguae distal,linguae frontal,palatum durum,gingiva
blood_supply:
  plexus pterygoideus,venae maxillares,arteria maxillaris,arteria alveolaris inferior,vena alveolaris inferior,arteria alveolaris posterior superior,vena alveolaris superior posterior,vena alveolaris superior anterior,arteriae alveolares superiores anteriores

innervation:
  nervus infraorbitalis,nervus maxillaris,divisio posterior nervi mandibularis,nervus mandibularis,nervus alveolaris inferior,rami alveolares superiores posteriores nervi maxillaris,ramus alveolaris superior anteriores nervi maxillaris,ramus alveolaris superior medius nervi maxillaris


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Teeth
parent: External structures
en_description: - the visible part of the tooth, covered by enamel
memorix_page: 6
latin: corona dentis
en: Crown of tooth
cell_type: 0
color: e5d336
hit_position: -0.95988,-1.45401,24.08948
hit_normal: -12.99674,-8.77391,0.46180
body_rotation: 1.45937,52.52026,1.90237
object_id:
  dentes premolares b6,dentes premolares b6 cut,dentes premorales b6 cut2,!gingiva,!mandibula,!palatum durum


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 3.1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Teeth
parent: radix dentis
en_description: - contains an opening (foramen apicis radicis dentis) where vessels and nerves enter the tooth
memorix_page: 6
latin: apex radicis dentis
en: Root apex
cell_type: 0
color: e03a3a
hit_position: -0.74824,-1.35140,23.69166
hit_normal: -8.16421,-4.05134,-1.03518
body_rotation: 355.80850,57.52118,353.44990
object_id:
  dentes premolares b6 cut,!dentes premolares b6,!dentes premorales b6 cut2,!gingiva,!mandibula,!palatum durum


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Tongue
parent: Cavitas oris
memorix_page: 8
latin: Lingua
en: Tongue
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The tongue </b>is a muscular organ, covered by mucosa and located in the oral cavity.
   The muscles of the tongue are divided into two groups: the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles. <b>The intrinsic muscles </b>are entirely located within the tongue itself and function to <b>change the shape of the tongue</b>. <b>The extrinsic muscles </b>attach to the tongue from the surrounding structures and function to <b>change the position of the tongue</b>. The tongue helps to <b>mechanically break down food</b>, participates in both <b>articulation </b>and <b>phonation </b>and, by means of its taste buds, in <b>taste perception</b>.

general_description:
  <b>Glossa </b>is the Greek term for tongue.
   
  <b>The mucosa of the tongue </b>is covered by stratified squamous epithelium, which keratinises in some places and forms projections of various shapes called lingual papillae.
   
  <b>The vallate papillae </b><i>(papillae vallatae) </i>are the largest lingual papillae and are located ventral to the terminal sulcus of the tongue. Taste buds are located in the epithelium around the vallate papillae (as well as in various other parts of the oral cavity). Other lingual papillae include the filiform, fungiform, foliate papillae. The foliate papillae are rudimentary leaf-like papillae on the margin of the tongue.
   
  <b>The foramen caecum of the tongue </b>is a remnant of the thyroglossal duct. The thyroglossal duct is a canal formed by the descent of the thyroid during development.
   
  <b>The lingual septum </b>fades out basally and changes into a sagittally oriented space filled with loose connective tissue called the middle space of the tongue <i>(spatium medianum linguae)</i>, which extends caudally to the mylohyoid, ventrally to the mental spines of the mandible and dorsally to the hyoid bone.
   
  <b>The palatoglossus</b>
  - functionally belongs to the muscles of the tongue
  - developmentally belongs to the muscles of the soft palate
  - innervation: vagus nerve
   
  <b>The paralingual canal </b>is a slit between the hyoglossus and genioglossus, where the lingual artery and vein pass.

clinical_notes:
  <b>When performing first aid, </b>the tongue must be prevented from falling backwards and blocking the airways. This is done by moving the mandible forward (as the tongue is attached to the mandible by the genioglossus). The same effect can be achieved by bending the head backwards, which causes the root of the tongue to move out of the laryngeal part of the pharynx.
   
  <b>The manoeuvre of Esmarch </b>is performed by simultaneously bending the head backwards, moving the mandible forwards and opening the mouth.
   
  <b>Ankyloglossia </b>(tongue-tie) is a congenital abnormality of the tongue characterised by a short and tough frenulum. This condition impedes the ability to suckle and later to speak.


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Tongue
parent: Tongue crossections
object_id: linguae frontal
latin: Linguae pars frontalis
en: Frontal crossection of the tongue
cell_type: 0
master_object: tongue
syntopy: pars oralis pharyngis,musculus styloglossus,musculus hyoglossus,palatum durum,gingiva,mandibula
related_objects:
  corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula,gingiva,palatum durum,uvula palatina,arcus palatoglossus 1,arcus palatoglossus 2,musculus palatoglosus,musculus genioglosus,musculus hyoglossus,musculus styloglossus,

blood_supply:
  arteria sublingualis,arteria profunda linguae,arteria lingualis,vena lingualis,vena comitans nervi hypoglossi,venae profundae linguae,vena sublingualis

innervation:
  nervus sublingualis,nervus lingualis,glossopharyngeal nerve,ganglion inferius nervi vagi,nervus vagus 1,ramus internus nervi laryngei superioris 1,nervus laryngeus superior 1,chorda tympani


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Tongue
parent: Parts and surfaces of tongue
en_description: - the most ventral part of the tongue
memorix_page: 8
latin: apex linguae
en: Apex/tip of tongue
cell_type: 0
color: 56a553
hit_position: -0.15531,24.31173,1.83388
hit_normal: 0.10469,3.28141,20.30919
body_rotation: 10.74913,356.93010,359.42690
object_id:
  linguae distal,linguae frontal,!gingiva,!palatum durum,!uvula palatina,!arcus palatoglossus 1,!arcus palatoglossus 2,!dentes incisivi 1,!dentes incisivi 2,!dentes incisivi b1,!dentes incisivi b2,!dentes incisivi 003,!dentes incisivi 004,!,!dentes incisivi b003,!dentes incisivi b004,!dentes canini 3,!dentes canini b3,!dentes canini 004,!dentes canini b004,!dentes premolares 4,!dentes premolares 5,!dentes premolares b4,!dentes premolares b5,!dentes premolares 006,!dentes premolares 007,!dentes premolares b007,!dentes premolares b008,!dentes morales 6,!dentes morales 7,!dentes morales 8,!dentes morales b7,!dentes morales b8,!dentes premolares b6,!dentes morales 009,!dentes morales 010,!dentes morales 011,!dentes morales b009,!dentes morales b010,!dentes premolares b009,!dentes premolares b6 cut,!dentes premorales b6 cut2


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2.1.1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Tongue
parent: Structures on dorsum of tongue
memorix_page: 8
latin: sulcus terminalis linguae
en: Terminal sulcus of tongue
cell_type: 0
color: 7ba905
hit_position: 0.05868,24.13308,0.35714
hit_normal: 0.21980,9.19941,-7.36558
body_rotation: 308.45500,178.99730,0.78528
en_description:
  - a “V” shaped groove with a dorsally pointing vertex
  - bordered ventrally by the 8-12 vallate papillae
  - forms the border between the body and the root of the tongue

object_id:
  linguae distal,linguae frontal,!gingiva,!palatum durum,!uvula palatina,!arcus palatoglossus 1,!arcus palatoglossus 2,!dentes incisivi 1,!dentes incisivi 2,!dentes incisivi b1,!dentes incisivi b2,!dentes incisivi 003,!dentes incisivi 004,!,!dentes incisivi b003,!dentes incisivi b004,!dentes canini 3,!dentes canini b3,!dentes canini 004,!dentes canini b004,!dentes premolares 4,!dentes premolares 5,!dentes premolares b4,!dentes premolares b5,!dentes premolares 006,!dentes premolares 007,!dentes premolares b007,!dentes premolares b008,!dentes morales 6,!dentes morales 7,!dentes morales 8,!dentes morales b7,!dentes morales b8,!dentes premolares b6,!dentes morales 009,!dentes morales 010,!dentes morales 011,!dentes morales b009,!dentes morales b010,!dentes premolares b009,!dentes premolares b6 cut,!dentes premorales b6 cut2,!pars oralis pharyngis,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!pars nasalis pharyngis


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 4.1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Tongue
parent: musculi linguae
en_description: - a fibrous disc beneath the mucosa of the dorsum of the tongue
memorix_page: 9
latin: aponeurosis linguae
en: Lingual aponeurosis
cell_type: 0
color: 61cdab
hit_position: 0.23879,23.40713,0.88730
hit_normal: 0.25061,-1.05822,-9.89777
body_rotation: 7.79168,181.49380,0.20256
object_id:
  linguae frontal,!linguae distal,!pars oralis pharyngis,!pars laryngea pharyngis,!dentes incisivi 1,!dentes incisivi 2,!dentes incisivi b1,!dentes incisivi b2,!dentes incisivi 003,!dentes incisivi 004,!,!dentes incisivi b003,!dentes incisivi b004,!dentes canini 3,!dentes canini b3,!dentes canini 004,!dentes canini b004,!dentes premolares 4,!dentes premolares 5,!dentes premolares b4,!dentes premolares b5,!dentes premolares 006,!dentes premolares 007,!dentes premolares b007,!dentes premolares b008,!dentes morales 6,!dentes morales 7,!dentes morales 8,!dentes morales b7,!dentes morales b8,!dentes premolares b6,!dentes morales 009,!dentes morales 010,!dentes morales 011,!dentes morales b009,!dentes morales b010,!dentes premolares b009,!dentes premolares b6 cut,!dentes premorales b6 cut2,!pars nasalis pharyngis


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Palate
parent: Cavitas oris
memorix_page: 10
latin: Palatum
en: Palate
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  <b>The palate is a horizontal partition separating the oral cavity </b>from the nasal cavity. The ventral part is formed by the <b>bony hard palate</b>. The dorsal part is called the <b>soft palate </b>and formed by a fibromuscular plate. The palate is used during swallowing, phonation and articulation.

general_description:
  <b>A mnemonic for the palatine muscles:</b>
   
  <b>2 muscles are attached directly to the palate:</b>
   - tensor veli palatini and levator veli palatini
   - complicated position, course and innervation
   
  <b>1 muscle is simple: 
  </b>- musculus uvulae
   
  <b>2 muscles are in arches: </b>- palatoglossus and palatopharyngeus
   - both run within the homonymous arches
  - developmentally are classified as muscles of the pharynx
  - functionally are classified as muscles of the tongue and pharynx
  - both are elevators
  - both are innervated by the vagus nerve


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Palate
parent: Palatum
memorix_page: 10
object_id: palatum durum
latin: Palatum durum
en: Hard palate
cell_type: 0
master_object: gingiva
en_description:
  The <b>hard palate </b>is a horizontal bony partition covered by mucosa and separating the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.

related_objects:
  corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula,gingiva,palatum durum,uvula palatina,arcus palatoglossus 1,arcus palatoglossus 2


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Palate
parent: Structures *1
en_description: - a mucosal ridge running in the median plane
memorix_page: 10
latin: raphe palati
en: Palatine raphe
cell_type: 0
color: 8c6bea
hit_position: -0.09324,-1.24050,24.62606
hit_normal: -12.30146,-16.12934,-10.86713
body_rotation: 337.13640,37.25068,343.53960
object_id:
  palatum durum,!linguae frontal,!linguae distal,!dentes incisivi 1,!dentes incisivi 2,!dentes incisivi b1,!dentes incisivi b2,!dentes incisivi 003,!dentes incisivi 004,!,!dentes incisivi b003,!dentes incisivi b004,!dentes canini 3,!dentes canini b3,!dentes canini 004,!dentes canini b004,!dentes premolares 4,!dentes premolares 5,!dentes premolares b4,!dentes premolares b5,!dentes premolares 006,!dentes premolares 007,!dentes premolares b007,!dentes premolares b008,!dentes morales 6,!dentes morales 7,!dentes morales 8,!dentes morales b7,!dentes morales b8,!dentes premolares b6,!dentes morales 009,!dentes morales 010,!dentes morales 011,!dentes morales b009,!dentes morales b010,!dentes premolares b009,!dentes premolares b6 cut,!dentes premorales b6 cut2


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Palate
parent: Palatum
memorix_page: 10
latin: Tonsilla palatina
en: Palatine tonsils
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The palatine tonsil is <b>an oval-shaped lymphoid organ </b>covered by mucosa and located in the tonsillar fossa/sinus (<i>fossa tonsillaris</i>) <b>between the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches</b>. It is a part of the immunological barrier that prevents infection from spreading from the oral and nasal cavity. The surface of the tonsil is decorated by the tonsillar pits and crypts.

object_id:
  tonsilla palatina 1,tonsilla palatina 2,!dentes incisivi 1,!dentes incisivi 2,!dentes incisivi b1,!dentes incisivi b2,!dentes incisivi 003,!dentes incisivi 004,!,!dentes incisivi b003,!dentes incisivi b004,!dentes canini 3,!dentes canini b3,!dentes canini 004,!dentes canini b004,!dentes premolares 4,!dentes premolares 5,!dentes premolares b4,!dentes premolares b5,!dentes premolares 006,!dentes premolares 007,!dentes premolares b007,!dentes premolares b008,!dentes morales 6,!dentes morales 7,!dentes morales 8,!dentes morales b7,!dentes morales b8,!dentes premolares b6,!dentes morales 009,!dentes morales 010,!dentes morales 011,!dentes morales b009,!dentes morales b010,!dentes premolares b009,!dentes premolares b6 cut,!dentes premorales b6 cut2

related_objects:
  corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula,gingiva,palatum durum,uvula palatina,arcus palatoglossus 1,arcus palatoglossus 2

clinical_notes:
  <b>During acute tonsillitis </b>dead bacteria and denuded epithelial cells accumulate in the pits and crypts of the tonsils and a white exudate emerges on the surface. Swollen tonsils can narrow or even completely close the lumen of the pharynx, impairing swallowing or even causing asphyxiation. Inflammation of the palatine tonsils is also called angina tonsillaris.

  <b>Tonsillectomy </b>is a surgical procedure to remove the tonsils from the peritonsillar space. In the loose connective tissue of this space, inflammation can arise and spread to the surrounding tissue. This condition can deteriorate to the point of a life- -threatening cervical phlegmon and spread to the mediastinum.

  <b>A peritonsillar abscess </b>is a bordered inflammatory focus in the peritonsillar space. It is a frequent complication of a bacterial inflammation of the palatine tonsils.
   
  <b>A paratonsillar abscess </b>is a type peritonsillar abscesses. It is located in the peritonsillar space lateral to the tonsil and can extend into the parapharyngeal space.

  <b>The internal carotid artery runs close to the palatine tonsils </b>in the parapharyngeal space. It can be damaged during a careless tonsillectomy as runs about 25 mm dorsal to the tonsil. Nevertheless, the most common structure prone to bleed during and after tonsillectomy is the paratonsillar vein (from the external palatine vein).

blood_supply:
  vena palatina externa,arteriae palatinae minores,arteria palatina ascendens,arteria pharyngea ascendens,arteria lingualis

innervation:
  nervus glossopharyngeus,ganglion pterygopalatinum,rami ganglionares nervi maxillaris ganglion pterigopalatinum,nervus maxillaris,nervi palatini minores


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Palate
parent: Structures *2
en_description: - a caudally protruding part of the soft palate
memorix_page: 11
object_id: uvula palatina
latin: uvula palatina
en: Uvula
related_objects: corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula
cell_type: 0
master_object: gingiva
blood_supply:
  venae palatinae,arteria lingualis,arteria pharyngea ascendens,arteria palatina ascendens,plexus pterygoideus,arteria palatina descendens

innervation:
  ganglion inferius nervi vagi,plexus pharyngeus nervous,rami pharyngei nervi glossopharyngei,nervus vagus 1,nervus glossopharyngeus,nervi palatini minores,nervus palatinus major,plexus pharyngeus nervous


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Salivary glands
parent: Cavitas oris
memorix_page: 12
latin: Glandulae salivariae
en: Salivary glands
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The <b>salivary glands </b>are connected by their ducts to the oral cavity. They produce <b>saliva</b>, which has a serous and a mucous component. <b>The serous component </b>contains enzymes, which participate in the initial breakdown of food. <b>The mucous component </b>lubricates the ingested food and prepares it for swallowing. Saliva secretion is regulated by reflexes and <b>controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system</b>. The autonomic nervous system processes stimuli that lead to salvation, such as: smell, taste, visual stimuli and somatosensory stimuli, made by contact between food and the mucosa of the oral cavity.

general_description:
  <b>Von Ebners glands </b>(gustatory glands) are serous glands that wash out the grooves around the vallate papillae where taste buds are located. <b>Webers glands </b>(glands of the root of the tongue) are mucous glands. They protect the root of the tongue. <b>The retromandibular fossa </b>is located between the lateral margin of the ramus of the mandible, external acoustic meatus, posterior belly of the digastric, styloid process, styloid septum and pterygoids.
   
  <b>Relation of the parotid gland to nerves in its proximity</b>:
   
  The facial nerve enters the gland after passing through the stylomastoid foramen. Within the gland it ramifies forming the intraparotid plexus, which divides the gland into superficial and deep parts.
   
  <b>The auriculotemporal nerve </b>passes behind the parotid gland to reach the temporal region.
   
  <b>Division of the parotid gland </b>by the intraparotid plexus (branches of the facial nerve) into the superficial and deep part does not match exactly the morphological division into the pars superficialis and pars profunda.
   
  <b>Parasympathetic fibers </b>that supply the parotid gland originate in the inferior salivary nucleus. They travel in the tympanic branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve to the middle ear before leaving the skull as the lesser petrosal nerve. They synapse in the optic ganglion and reach the parotid gland through the parotid branches of the auriculotemporal nerve.
   
  <b>The salivary glands </b>produce 1 to 1,5 liters of saliva daily. Saliva is important for hygiene of the oral cavity, lubricating food and in preventing the formation of dental calculus.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Sialolithiasis </b>refers to the presence of stones in the salivary ducts. This occurs most frequently in the submandibular duct due to its upward course.
   
  <b>Sialoadenitis </b>is inflammation of the salivary gland. This can occur as a consequence of sialolithiasis.
   
  <b>Epidemic parotitis </b>(mumps) is an acute viral inflammation of the parotid gland. Its clinical symptoms are swelling and pain. The disease can be accompanied by inflammation of other glands such as the pancreas and gonads. Infection of the male gonads may result in sterility.


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2.2
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Salivary glands
parent: glandulae salivariae majores
en_description: - is located beneath the mandible
memorix_page: 12
object_id: glandula submandibularis 1
latin: glandula submandibularis *1
en: Submandibular gland *1
cell_type: 4
innervation: nervus sublingualis,nervus lingualis,ganglion submandibulare
syntopy: palatum durum,mandibula,gingiva,musculus hyoglossus
blood_supply:
  arteria lingualis,vena comitans nervi hypoglossi,vena lingualis,arteria sublingualis,vena sublingualis,arteria facialis,vena facialis


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Salivary glands
parent: glandula sublingualis *2
memorix_page: 12
object_id: glandula sublingualis 1
latin: glandula sublingualis *3
en: Sublingual gland *3
cell_type: 0
master_object: Sublingual gland
tags: subgroup_desc
en_description:
  The sublingual gland is located in the sublingual space.
  The anterior part of the gland is seromucous. The posterior part is purely mucous.

related_objects:
  corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula,gingiva,palatum durum,uvula palatina,arcus palatoglossus 1,arcus palatoglossus 2


system: digestive
main_group: Oral cavity
sub_group: Salivary glands
parent: glandula submandibularis *3
memorix_page: 13
object_id: ductus parotideus 1
latin: ductus submandibularis
en: Submandibular/Wharton’s duct
cell_type: 0
innervation: nervus auriculotemporalis
en_description:
  <b>1.</b> emerges from the posterior part of the gland
  <b>2.</b> curves over the posterior margin of the mylohyoid and runs between the mylohyoid and hyoglossus
  <b>3.</b> continues in the sublingual space on the inner side of the sublingual gland, where it crosses the lingual nerve
  <b>4.</b> opens on the sublingual caruncle with the major sublingual duct

blood_supply:
  arteria temporalis superficialis,arteria maxillaris,ramus parotideus arteriae auricilaris posterioris,arteria auricularis posterior,arteria transversa faciei,venae parotidae

syntopy:
  vena facialis,vena jugularis externa,vena temporalis superficialis,vena retromandibularis,arteria facialis,os zygomaticum 1,os temporale 1,arteria temporalis superficialis,arteria carotis externa,mandibula,pars superfacialis musculi masseteris


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Oesophagus
sub_group: Oesophagus (parts)
parent: Oesophagus (parts)
en_description: - runs in the cervical visceral space from C6 to T2
memorix_page: 17
object_id: pars cervicalis oseophagi
latin: pars cervicalis oesophagi
en: Cervical part of the oseophagus
cell_type: 0
master_object: Oesophagus
innervation: plexus oesophageus,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2
syntopy: Trachea,vertebrae cervicales c7,vertebrae cervicales c6,
related_objects:
  corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula,gingiva,palatum durum,uvula palatina,arcus palatoglossus 1,arcus palatoglossus 2,os hyoideum,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,pars oralis pharyngis,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,gaster,gaster cap,pars laryngea pharyngis

blood_supply:
  arteria intercostalis posterior octava 2,arteria intercostalis posterior nona 2,arteria thyroidea inferior,venae oesophageales,arteria intercostalis posterior tertia 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quarta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quinta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior sexta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior septima 2,venae oesophageales sinistrae,rami oesophageales,venae oesophageae,ramus oesophagealis arteria bronchiales,arteria bronchialis dextra,venae oesophageales dextrae


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Oesophagus
sub_group: Oesophagus (parts)
parent: Oesophagus (parts)
en_description: - passes through the posterior mediastinum from T2 to T10
memorix_page: 17
object_id: pars thoracica oseophagi
latin: pars thoracica oesophagi
en: Thoracic part of the oseophagus
cell_type: 0
master_object: Oesophagus
innervation: plexus oesophageus,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2
related_objects:
  corpus maxillae 1,corpus maxillae 2,mandibula,gingiva,palatum durum,uvula palatina,arcus palatoglossus 1,arcus palatoglossus 2,os hyoideum,atlas c1,axis c2,vertebrae cervicales c3,vertebrae cervicales c4,vertebrae cervicales c5,vertebrae cervicales c6,vertebrae cervicales c7,pars oralis pharyngis,vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,gaster,gaster cap,pars laryngea pharyngis

blood_supply:
  arteria intercostalis posterior octava 2,arteria intercostalis posterior nona 2,arteria thyroidea inferior,venae oesophageales,arteria intercostalis posterior tertia 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quarta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior quinta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior sexta 2,arteria intercostalis posterior septima 2,venae oesophageales sinistrae,rami oesophageales,venae oesophageae,ramus oesophagealis arteria bronchiales,arteria bronchialis dextra,venae oesophageales dextrae

syntopy:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t2,pericardium fibrosum,pericardium fibrosum,aorta thoracica,bronchus principalis sinister,bronchus principalis dexter,arcus aortae,vena azygos


system: digestive
main_group: Oesophagus
sub_group: Curvatures
parent: Curvatures
memorix_page: 17
en: In the frontal plane
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  - the cervical part is curved in the median plane
  - the superior thoracic part is curved to the left
  - the middle thoracic part is curved to the right
  - the inferior thoracic part is curved to the left and directs towards the oesophageal hiatus


system: digestive
main_group: Oesophagus
sub_group: Blood supply and innervation
parent: Blood supply and innervation
memorix_page: 17
en: Blood supply
cell_type: 4
en_description:
  Arterial supply is segmental. <b>The individual parts of the oesophagus are supplied from the nearest blood vessels:</b> inferior thyroid artery, oesophageal branches of the aortic arch and thoracic aorta, posterior intercostal arteries, left gastric artery and left inferior phrenic artery. 

  <b>Venous drainage </b>occurs through two venous plexues located in the wall of the oesophagus: the deep (in the submucosa) and superficial (within the adventitia) plexuses. These plexuses anastomose with each other and form a connection between the riverbeds of the superior vena cava and the portal vein. Thus, they create a portocaval anastomosis. 

  <b>Blood from the oesophagus drains into:</b>
  - <b>superior vena cava:</b> via the oesophageal veins into the azygos and hemi-azygos veins and also via the inferior thyroid veins
  - <b>portal vein:</b> the aboral part of the oesophagus via the gastric veins


system: digestive
main_group: Stomach
memorix_page: 18
latin: gaster
en: Stomach
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The stomach is the widest part of the digestive tract. It is located in the <b>supramesocolic part of the peritoneal cavity </b>under the left vault of the diaphragm. It extends on the right to the epigastric region. The average volume is approximately one litre, but capacity may be two to three litres. The shape of the stomach varies according to its content and the activity of its muscular wall. The arterial supply is provided by the coeliac<b> trunk</b>.

general_description:
  <b>Stomachus </b>is the Greek term for the stomach. <b>Ventriculus </b>is the obsoleteLati n term for the stomach.

  <b>Functional division of the stomach:</b>
  <b>Digestive part </b><i>(pars digestoria) </i>- includes the fundus and body of the stomach.
  <b>Evacuating part </b><i>(pars egestoria)</i>- includes the pyloric part of the stomach.

  <b>Gastric peristola </b>is a resting phase of the stomach after being filled with food.

  <b>Peristaltic waves </b>enable mixing and moving of the gastric content and creation of chyme.

  <b>Pyloric pump: </b>peristaltic waves in the pyloric part enable the passage of chyme into the duodenum while the pyloric sphincter is relaxed.

  <b>Pepsin, gastrin, intrinsic factor ofCastle </b>(necessary for absorption of vitamin B12) and <b>hydrochloric acid</b>(HCl) are secreted in the stomach.

  <b>The parasympathetic nervous system facilitates</b> peristalsis and secretion of HCl.
  <b>The sympathetic nervous system inhibits</b> peristalsis and secretion ofHCl. However, the pyloric sphincter contracts under the influence of the sympathetic system.

  <b>Mnemonics:</b>
  <b>Arteries with a short name </b>(gastric arteries) course along the <b>lesser curvature</b>.
  <b>Arteries with a long name </b>(gastro omental arteries) course along the greater curvature.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Pyloric stenosis </b><i>(pylorostenosis) </i> is a congenital hypertrophic stenosis of the pyloric sphincter that may clinically manifest as projectile vomiting.

  <b>The nodes of Virchow-Troisier Are</b> the left supraclavicular lymph nodes. Enlargement of these nodes can be one of the first symptoms of stomach cancer due to its connection with the thoracic duct.

  <b>Gastric ulcers </b>are more likely to occur in areas of the stomach that have poor blood supply, such as were the anastomotic arterial arches are attached to the lesser and greater curvatures of the stomach.


system: digestive
main_group: Stomach
sub_group: External structure of stomach
parent: Stomach anatomy sections
object_id: gaster
latin: gaster *2
en: Stomach *2
cell_type: 0
master_object: Stomach
syntopy: Liver,diaphragm,Kidneys,glandula suprarenalis 1,Pancreas,Large intestine
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,pars cervicalis oseophagi,pars thoracica oseophagi,pars abdominalis oseophagi,duodenum,duodenum cap,gaster fibrae obliquae,gaster sphincter pylori,gaster stratum circulare,gaster stratum longitudinale,pelvis,pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap,os sacrum,vesica biliaris dorsal,vesica biliaris ventral,cystic duct

blood_supply:
  arteria gastrica posterior,arteria gastricae breves,truncus coeliacus,arteria hepatica propria,arteria gastroduodenalis,arteria hepatica communis,arteria splenica,arteria gastrica sinistra,arteria gastrica dextra,arteria prepancreatica sinistra,arteria gastroomentalis,venae gastricae breves,vena gastroomentalis sinistra,vena gastroomentalis dextra,vena prepylorica,vena gastrica dextra,vena splenica,vena gastrica sinistra

innervation:
  nervus pyloricus,rami gastrici trunci vagalis posterioris,nervus posterior curvature minoris gastricae,truncus vagalis posterior,nervus anterior curvature minoris gastricae,rami gastrici trunci vagalis antrioris,truncus vagalis anterior,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,


system: digestive
main_group: Stomach
sub_group: External structure of stomach
parent: Stomach anatomy sections
object_id: gaster cap
en: Stomach anatomy cap
cell_type: 0
syntopy: Liver,diaphragm,Kidneys,glandula suprarenalis 1,Pancreas,Large intestine
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,pars cervicalis oseophagi,pars thoracica oseophagi,pars abdominalis oseophagi,duodenum,duodenum cap,gaster,pelvis,pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap,os sacrum,vesica biliaris dorsal,vesica biliaris ventral,cystic duct

blood_supply:
  arteria gastrica posterior,arteria gastricae breves,truncus coeliacus,arteria hepatica propria,arteria gastroduodenalis,arteria hepatica communis,arteria splenica,arteria gastrica sinistra,arteria gastrica dextra,arteria prepancreatica sinistra,arteria gastroomentalis,venae gastricae breves,vena gastroomentalis sinistra,vena gastroomentalis dextra,vena prepylorica,vena gastrica dextra,vena splenica,vena gastrica sinistra

innervation:
  nervus pyloricus,rami gastrici trunci vagalis posterioris,nervus posterior curvature minoris gastricae,truncus vagalis posterior,nervus anterior curvature minoris gastricae,rami gastrici trunci vagalis antrioris,truncus vagalis anterior,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Small intestine
sub_group: Parts
parent: Parts
memorix_page: 20
object_id: duodenum
en: Duodenum*2
cell_type: 0
blood_supply:
  arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior posterior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior anterior,ramus anterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,ramus posterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior anterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior anterior,vena portae hepatis,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior posterior

innervation:
  truncus vagalis posterior,nervus pyloricus,nervus anterior curvature minoris gastricae,truncus vagalis anterior,nervus vagus 2,nervus vagus 1

syntopy:
  Liver,Large intestine,Gallbladder,Pancreas,pelvis renalis 2,ren cap 2,arteria mesenterica superior,ureter pars abdominalis 2,aorta abdominalis,vena cava inferior


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Small intestine
sub_group: Parts
parent: Parts
memorix_page: 20
object_id: jejunum
en: Jejunum
cell_type: 0
blood_supply:
  arteriae jejunales,arteriae ileales,ramus ilialis arteriae ileocolicae,ramus descendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus colicus arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,vena mesenterica superior

innervation:
  ganglion mesentericum superius,ganglion coeliacum 2,ganglion coeliacum 1,plexus coeliacus,nervus vagus 1,nervus splanchnicus major 2,nervus vagus 2,nervus splanchnicus major 1,rami jejunales plexus mesenterici superioris,plexus mesentericus superior

syntopy:
  omen majus,ren cap 2,ren 1,ren 2,ren cap 1,pelvis renalis 1,ureter pars abdominalis 1,ureter pars pelvica 1,ureter pars pelvica 2,ureter pars abdominalis 2,pelvis renalis 2,colon sigmoideum,vena cava inferior,aorta abdominalis,duodenum,duodenum cap,flexura coli dextra,flexura coli sinistra,rectum,caecum,colon ascendens,colon descendens,apex vesicae,fundus vesicae,corpus vesicae,colon transversum cap,colon transversum


system: digestive
main_group: Duodenum
memorix_page: 20
en: Duodenum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive system. It is approximately <b>3- 5 m long </b>and its width is 2- 4 cm. It is composed of <b>intestinal loops that fill the majority of the abdominal cavity</b>. The loops face the peritoneum of the anterior abdominal wall and are in contact with parts of the large intestine and other abdominal organs. 

  The duodenum originates at the pyloric orifice of the stomach and continues into the jejunum at the duodenojejunal flexure. It has the shape of a horseshoe. It is located at the level of L1- L3 and its length is about 25- 30cm. The duodenum encircles vertebra L2 from the right side and <b>forms a space for the head of the pancreas</b>. The duodenum has four <b>main parts</b>, the majority of which are <b>secondarily retroperitoneal</b>. The bile duct and both pancreatic ducts open into the duodenum. The duodenal arterial supply is provided by two large trunks from the abdominal aorta: the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery.

general_description:
  <b>The term "duodenum“</b>refers to its length of 12 inches.

  <b>The intestinal villi of the duodenal wall </b>are shaped like sheets.

  <b>Duodenal glands / Brunners glands </b><i>(glandulae duodenales) </i>are submucosal serous tubuloalveolar glands that produce and secrete an alkaline liquid, which neutralises the acidic content from the stomach.

  <b>The developmental border zone between</b> the foregut and midgut is situated just below the major duodenal papilla.

  <b>The suspensory muscle of duodenum/ Ligament of Treitz </b><i>(musculus suspensorius duodeni) </i>is a musculoligamentous fascicle extending from the left crus of the diaphragm. It Suspends the duodenojejunal flexure.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Bulbar ulcer </b>is a duodenal ulcer which occurs in the ampulla (duodenal cap). Ulcers are less likely to occur in other parts of the duodenum chyme gets neutralized by the liquid of the duodenal glands

  <b>Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy </b>is an endoscopic examination of the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract: oesophagus, stomach and duodenum.In the clinical practice, this is often termed gastroscopy.


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Parts
parent: Parts
en_description:
  - is about 4-5 cm long
  - connects to the stomach and is located at the level of vertebra L1

memorix_page: 20
latin: pars superior *2
en: Superior part / D1
cell_type: 0
color: d4852f
hit_position: 1.62292,-0.75969,10.71899
hit_normal: -0.17384,-25.03990,-7.68389
body_rotation: 343.87520,354.70260,1.47514
object_id:
  duodenum,duodenum cap,caecum,!caecum cap,!appendix vermiformis,!ostium appendicis,!caecum cap,!colon ascendens,!flexura coli dextra,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!flexura coli sinistra,!colon descendens,!colon sigmoideum,!rectum,!rectum cap,!taenia mecocolica,!taenia omentalis,!taneia libera,!epiploic appendices,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Parts
parent: Parts
memorix_page: 20
latin: pars descendens *2
en: Descending part / D2
cell_type: 0
color: afd42f
hit_position: 1.81923,-0.72558,10.04280
hit_normal: 10.20681,-23.69098,-1.38409
body_rotation: 356.84410,331.17270,1.73554
en_description:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 181 characters]

object_id:
  duodenum,duodenum cap,caecum,!caecum cap,!appendix vermiformis,!ostium appendicis,!caecum cap,!colon ascendens,!flexura coli dextra,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!flexura coli sinistra,!colon descendens,!colon sigmoideum,!rectum,!rectum cap,!taenia mecocolica,!taenia omentalis,!taneia libera,!epiploic appendices,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!omen majus


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Histology of duodenum
parent: Histology of duodenum
en_description:
  - is about 4-5 cm long
  - connects to the stomach and is located at the level of vertebra L1

memorix_page: 20
object_id: duodenum cap
en: Duodenum - anterior part
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,gaster fibrae obliquae,gaster sphincter pylori,gaster stratum circulare,gaster stratum longitudinale,pelvis,pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap,os sacrum,vesica biliaris dorsal,vesica biliaris ventral,cystic duct,duodenum,jejunum

blood_supply:
  arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior posterior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior anterior,ramus anterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,ramus posterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior anterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior anterior,vena portae hepatis,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior posterior

innervation:
  truncus vagalis posterior,nervus pyloricus,nervus anterior curvature minoris gastricae,truncus vagalis anterior,nervus vagus 2,nervus vagus 1

syntopy:
  Liver,Large intestine,Gallbladder,Pancreas,pelvis renalis 2,ren cap 2,arteria mesenterica superior,ureter pars abdominalis 2,aorta abdominalis,vena cava inferior


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Histology of duodenum
parent: Histology of duodenum
memorix_page: 20
latin: Intestinum duodenum
en: Duodenum *3
cell_type: 0
master_object: duodenum
en_description:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 181 characters]

object_id:
  duodenum,!caecum cap,!appendix vermiformis,!ostium appendicis,!caecum cap,!colon ascendens,!flexura coli dextra,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!flexura coli sinistra,!colon descendens,!colon sigmoideum,!rectum,!rectum cap,!taenia mecocolica,!taenia omentalis,!taneia libera,!epiploic appendices,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!omen majus

related_objects:
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blood_supply:
  arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior posterior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior anterior,ramus anterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,ramus posterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior anterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior anterior,vena portae hepatis,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior posterior

innervation:
  truncus vagalis posterior,nervus pyloricus,nervus anterior curvature minoris gastricae,truncus vagalis anterior,nervus vagus 2,nervus vagus 1

syntopy:
  Liver,Large intestine,Gallbladder,Pancreas,pelvis renalis 2,ren cap 2,arteria mesenterica superior,ureter pars abdominalis 2,aorta abdominalis,vena cava inferior


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 3
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Histology of duodenum
parent: Histology of duodenum
memorix_page: 20
latin: Startum circulare tunicae muscularis duodeni
en: Circular layer of duodenum
cell_type: 0
master_object: duodenum
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 107 characters]

object_id:
  duodenum 3,!duodenum cap,!caecum cap,!appendix vermiformis,!ostium appendicis,!caecum cap,!colon ascendens,!flexura coli dextra,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!flexura coli sinistra,!colon descendens,!colon sigmoideum,!rectum,!rectum cap,!taenia mecocolica,!taenia omentalis,!taneia libera,!epiploic appendices,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!omen majus

related_objects:
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system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Histology of duodenum
parent: Histology of duodenum
memorix_page: 20
latin: Startum longitudinale tunicae muscularis duodeni
en: Longitudinal layer of duodenum
cell_type: 0
master_object: duodenum
tags: hide_parts
en_description:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 174 characters]

object_id:
  duodenum 2,!duodenum cap,!caecum cap,!appendix vermiformis,!ostium appendicis,!caecum cap,!colon ascendens,!flexura coli dextra,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!flexura coli sinistra,!colon descendens,!colon sigmoideum,!rectum,!rectum cap,!taenia mecocolica,!taenia omentalis,!taneia libera,!epiploic appendices,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!omen majus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 639 characters]


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Histology of duodenum
parent: Histology of duodenum
memorix_page: 20
latin: tela submucosa duodenum
en: Submucosa of duodenum
cell_type: 0
master_object: duodenum
tags: hide_parts
object_id:
  duodenum submucosa,!duodenum cap,!caecum cap,!appendix vermiformis,!ostium appendicis,!caecum cap,!colon ascendens,!flexura coli dextra,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!flexura coli sinistra,!colon descendens,!colon sigmoideum,!rectum,!rectum cap,!taenia mecocolica,!taenia omentalis,!taneia libera,!epiploic appendices,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!omen majus

related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 639 characters]


system: digestive
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Structure
memorix_page: 21
latin: pars superior
en: Superior part
cell_type: 0
parent:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,gaster fibrae obliquae,gaster sphincter pylori,gaster stratum circulare,gaster stratum longitudinale,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,ileum,gaster,gastercap


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Duodenum
sub_group: Structure
parent: pars descendens
memorix_page: 21
latin: papilla duodeni major
en: Major duodenal papilla of Vater
cell_type: 0
color: 32d48d
hit_position: 1.34480,-0.46842,9.75430
hit_normal: 9.51873,-24.36337,-8.38142
body_rotation: 343.10740,332.68910,8.53347
en_description:
  - an elevated area on the lower end of the longitudinal duodenal fold within the inferior half of the descending part, approximately 10cm from the pylorus
  - the opening of the bile duct and major pancreati c duct

object_id:
  duodenum,!duodenum cap,caecum,!caecum cap,!appendix vermiformis,!ostium appendicis,!caecum cap,!colon ascendens,!flexura coli dextra,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!flexura coli sinistra,!colon descendens,!colon sigmoideum,!rectum,!rectum cap,!taenia mecocolica,!taenia omentalis,!taneia libera,!epiploic appendices,!colon transversum,!colon transversum cap,!omen majus


system: digestive
main_group: Jejunum and ileum
memorix_page: 22
latin: Jejunum et ileum
en: Jejunum and ileum
clinical_notes: <b>Enteroscopy </b>is an endoscopic examination of the small intestine.
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive system. It is approximately <b>3- 5 m long </b>and its width is 2- 4 cm. It is composed of <b>intestinal loops that fill the majority of the abdominal cavity</b>. The loops face the peritoneum of the anterior abdominal wall and are in contact with parts of the large intestine and other abdominal organs. 

  The duodenum becomes the jejunum at the duodenojejunal flexure. However, there is no<b> macroscopically visible border </b>between the jejunum and ileum. The jejunum and ileum form loops and together measure about <b>3 to 5 meters</b>. Only the initial part of the jejunum and the terminal ileum are held firmly in place; the rest of the jejunum and ileum is freely mobile in the abdominal cavity.

general_description:
  <b>The jejunum and ileum </b>are intraperitoneal organs. They are suspended by the mesentery and,in comparison to the duodenum,which is not suspended by the mesentery are mobile.

  <b>The muscular layer of the small intestine </b>performs 3 types of motions. Segmental motions are focal contractions of circular muscle that create segments. Oscillating motions within the segments shorten and lengthen the intestinal loops,mixing the intestinal content. Peristaltic motion move the intestinal content in an aboral direction.

  <b>The intestinal villi </b><i>(villi intestinales)</i>are prominences of epithelium and lamina propria.

  <b>The intestinal glands / crypts ofLieberkuhn </b><i>(glandulae intestinales)</i>are depressions between bases of the intestinal villi.

  <b>Peyers patches </b><i>(noduli lymphoideiaggregati ) </i>are located in the submucosa of the ileum.

  <b>In the clinical practice </b>the jejunum and ileum are called the jejunoileum mesenterial intestine.

  <b>The terminal ileum </b>is a clinical term for the aboral part of ileum, whichconti nues into the caecum. Inflammatory Bowel diseases such asCrohns disease may affect this part of small intestine.

  <b>The enterohepatic circulation </b>refers to the circulation of bile acids that are absorbed in the terminal ileum and then transported by the hepatic portal vein back to the liver to be reused in bile acid synthesis.

  <b>The developmental border zone between</b> the midgut and hindgut is situated between the middle and left thirds of transverse colon(the Cannon-B&ouml;hm point). This also represents the border between parasympathetic innervation from the vagus nerve and from the sacralspinal segments.

  <b>Gastrocolic ligament </b>( <i>ligamentumgastrocolicum</i>) is a part of the greater omentum originating from the greater curvature of the stomach. It is attached to the omental taenia of the transverse colon.

  <b>Phrenicocolic ligament </b>( <i>ligamentumphrenicocolicum</i>) is a peritoneal fold passing from the left diaphragmatic vault to the left colic flexure.


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Jejunum and ileum
sub_group: Parts
parent: Parts
memorix_page: 22
object_id: jejunum
latin: Jejunum
en: Jejunum
cell_type: 0
tags: maingroup_desc
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,gaster fibrae obliquae,gaster sphincter pylori,gaster stratum circulare,gaster stratum longitudinale,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,ileum,gaster,gaster cap

blood_supply:
  arteriae jejunales,arteriae ileales,ramus ilialis arteriae ileocolicae,ramus descendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus colicus arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,vena mesenterica superior

innervation:
  ganglion mesentericum superius,ganglion coeliacum 2,ganglion coeliacum 1,plexus coeliacus,nervus vagus 1,nervus splanchnicus major 2,nervus vagus 2,nervus splanchnicus major 1,rami jejunales plexus mesenterici superioris,plexus mesentericus superior

syntopy:
  omen majus,ren cap 2,ren 1,ren 2,ren cap 1,pelvis renalis 1,ureter pars abdominalis 1,ureter pars pelvica 1,ureter pars pelvica 2,ureter pars abdominalis 2,pelvis renalis 2,colon sigmoideum,vena cava inferior,aorta abdominalis,duodenum,duodenum cap,flexura coli dextra,flexura coli sinistra,rectum,caecum,colon ascendens,colon descendens,apex vesicae,fundus vesicae,corpus vesicae,colon transversum cap,colon transversum


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Jejunum and ileum
sub_group: Parts
parent: Parts
memorix_page: 22
object_id: ileum
latin: Ileum
en: Ileum
cell_type: 0
tags: maingroup_desc
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,gaster fibrae obliquae,gaster sphincter pylori,gaster stratum circulare,gaster stratum longitudinale,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum,gaster,gaster cap

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 230 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 249 characters]

syntopy:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 420 characters]


system: digestive
main_group: Large Intestine
memorix_page: 23
latin: Intestinum crassum
en: Large Intestine
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  The large intestine is <b>the last part of the digestive tract</b>. Its main functions are <b>absorption of water </b>and creation of faeces.The large intestine is about <b>1.5 m long </b>and 6- 8 cm wide. Along its course, it is either located secondarily retroperitoneallyon the posterior abdominal wall or is suspended in the abdominal cavity by the mesocolon. The large intestine from a perimeter around the small intestine.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease belongs</b> to a group of diseases called idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

  <b>Hirschsprungs disease </b>is a rare congenital disorder. It is characterised by the absence of ganglia in the enteric nervous system in the aboralpart of the large intestine.


system: digestive
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Caecum
parent: Intestinum crassum
memorix_page: 24
latin: Caecum
en: Caecum
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  <b>The caecum </b>is the first part of the large intestine. It is <b>situated in the right iliac fossa and</b> it is about 7 cm long. The ileum opens into the left side of the caecum. The caecumis covered by peritoneum, except on the cranial aspect of its dorsal wall. The caudal part of the caecum is free and movable, a peritoneal fold arises here forming the retrocaecal recess. The <b>vermiform appendix </b>arises from the caudal apex of the caecum.

general_description:
  <b>Mobile caecum </b>is a term for a caecum,which is fully mobile due to the presence of a fold of peritoneumcalled the mesocaecum.

  <b>Syntopy of the caecum</b>
  Ventrally: the greater omentum and ileum
  Dorsally: the iliacus, psoas major and lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Caecum
parent: Caecum
memorix_page: 24
object_id: caecum
en: Caecum *1
cell_type: 5
master_object: Rectum
related_objects:
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blood_supply:
  arteriae sigmoideae,arteria colica sinistra,arteria mesenterica inferior,arteria colica dextra,arteria ileocolica,arteriae rectae coli,arteria rectalis media 2,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria rectalis inferior,arteria rectalis superior,arteria colica media,ramus colicus arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens arteriae colicae dextrae,ramus descendens arteriae colicae dextrae,arteria caecalis posterior,arteria caecalis anterior,arteria appendicularis,ramus ilialis arteriae ileocolicae,ramus descendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus dexter arteriae colicae mediae,ramus sinister arteriae colicae mediae,ramus ascendens arteriae colicae sinistrae,ramus descendens arteriae colicae sinistrae,arcus arteriae sigmoidae,vena rectalis superior,venae rectales inferiores,vena rectalis media,venae sigmoideae,vena colica sinistra,ramus descendens venae colicae sinistrae,ramus ascendens venae colicae sinistrae,venae rectae jejunales,venae rectae ileales,venae rectae colonae,venae jejunales,venae ileales,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena ileocolica,vena colica media,vena colica dextra,vena caecalis anterior,vena appendicularis,ramus sinister venae colicae mediae,ramus ilealis venae ileocolicae,ramus dexter venae colicae mediae,ramus descendens venae colicae dextrae,ramus colicus venae ileocolicae,ramus colicus descendens venae ileocolicae,ramus colicus ascendens venae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens venae colicae dextrae

innervation:
  rami sigmoidei plexus mesenterici inferioris,nervi splanchnici sacrales 2,nervi splanchnici sacrales 1,ganglion mesentericum inferius,plexus mesentericus inferior,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,ganglion coeliacum 1,ganglion coeliacum 2,ganglion mesentericum superius,plexus coeliacus


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Caecum
parent: Caecum *1
memorix_page: 24
object_id: caecum cap
en: Caecum anterior cap
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,caecum,,caecum,appendix vermiformis,ostium appendicis,colon ascendens,flexura coli dextra,colon transversum,flexura coli sinistra,colon descendens,colon sigmoideum,rectum,taenia mecocolica,taenia omentalis,taneia libera,epiploic appendices

blood_supply:
  arteriae sigmoideae,arteria colica sinistra,arteria mesenterica inferior,arteria colica dextra,arteria ileocolica,arteriae rectae coli,arteria rectalis media 2,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria rectalis inferior,arteria rectalis superior,arteria colica media,ramus colicus arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens arteriae colicae dextrae,ramus descendens arteriae colicae dextrae,arteria caecalis posterior,arteria caecalis anterior,arteria appendicularis,ramus ilialis arteriae ileocolicae,ramus descendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus dexter arteriae colicae mediae,ramus sinister arteriae colicae mediae,ramus ascendens arteriae colicae sinistrae,ramus descendens arteriae colicae sinistrae,arcus arteriae sigmoidae,vena rectalis superior,venae rectales inferiores,vena rectalis media,venae sigmoideae,vena colica sinistra,ramus descendens venae colicae sinistrae,ramus ascendens venae colicae sinistrae,venae rectae jejunales,venae rectae ileales,venae rectae colonae,venae jejunales,venae ileales,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena ileocolica,vena colica media,vena colica dextra,vena caecalis anterior,vena appendicularis,ramus sinister venae colicae mediae,ramus ilealis venae ileocolicae,ramus dexter venae colicae mediae,ramus descendens venae colicae dextrae,ramus colicus venae ileocolicae,ramus colicus descendens venae ileocolicae,ramus colicus ascendens venae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens venae colicae dextrae

innervation:
  rami sigmoidei plexus mesenterici inferioris,nervi splanchnici sacrales 2,nervi splanchnici sacrales 1,ganglion mesentericum inferius,plexus mesentericus inferior,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,ganglion coeliacum 1,ganglion coeliacum 2,ganglion mesentericum superius,plexus coeliacus


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 2
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Caecum
parent: Caecum
memorix_page: 24
object_id: appendix vermiformis
latin: appendix vermiformis
en: Vermiform appendix
cell_type: 5
master_object: Rectum
en_description:
  The vermiform appendix is a 5- 7 cm long, narrow blind-ended tube. It is held in its location by a <b>fold of peritoneum called the meso-appendix</b>. <b>An abundance of lymphoid tissue </b>is found throughout its mucosa and submucosa. The taenia coli converge to form a continuous muscular layer on the vermiform appendix.

related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap

general_description:
  <b>The appendicular tonsil </b>is a term for the vermiform appendix based on the extensive amount of lymphoid tissue in its wall.

  <b>The appendiculo-ovarian ligament of Clado </b>is a variable peritoneal duplicature connecting the vermiform appendix to the right ovary. It Contains lymphatic vessels and may allow the infection to spread between the vermiform appendix and ovary.

  <b>It can sometimes be sometimes difficult to determine the position of the vermiform appendix</b>, particularly when it is in atypical positions or during inflammation of the abdominal cavity.In such cases, orientation by the taenia coli can help as they converge on the vermiform appendix to form a continuous muscular layer.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Acute appendicitis </b>is an acute inflammation of the appendix. The Classical presentation of appendicitis is pain in the right area under the umbilicus, but it can imitate an inflammation of other organs according to the variability of a position. It is a severe health condition,classified as acute abdomen. Retrocaecalappendices have the worst prognosis.

  <b>Atypical positions of the appendix</b>,such as the subhepatic position and cranial displacement during pregnancy, can cause appendicitis sto mimic inflammations of other organs, such as the gallbladder bladder and kidneys.


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Ascending colon
parent: Colon ascendens
memorix_page: 25
object_id: colon ascendens
latin: colon ascendens *1
en: Ascending colon *1
cell_type: 0
master_object: Rectum
tags: subgroup_desc
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 473 characters]

blood_supply:
  arteriae sigmoideae,arteria colica sinistra,arteria mesenterica inferior,arteria colica dextra,arteria ileocolica,arteriae rectae coli,arteria rectalis media 2,arteria rectalis media 1,arteria rectalis inferior,arteria rectalis superior,arteria colica media,ramus colicus arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens arteriae colicae dextrae,ramus descendens arteriae colicae dextrae,arteria caecalis posterior,arteria caecalis anterior,arteria appendicularis,ramus ilialis arteriae ileocolicae,ramus descendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens rami colici arteriae ileocolicae,ramus dexter arteriae colicae mediae,ramus sinister arteriae colicae mediae,ramus ascendens arteriae colicae sinistrae,ramus descendens arteriae colicae sinistrae,arcus arteriae sigmoidae,vena rectalis superior,venae rectales inferiores,vena rectalis media,venae sigmoideae,vena colica sinistra,ramus descendens venae colicae sinistrae,ramus ascendens venae colicae sinistrae,venae rectae jejunales,venae rectae ileales,venae rectae colonae,venae jejunales,venae ileales,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena ileocolica,vena colica media,vena colica dextra,vena caecalis anterior,vena appendicularis,ramus sinister venae colicae mediae,ramus ilealis venae ileocolicae,ramus dexter venae colicae mediae,ramus descendens venae colicae dextrae,ramus colicus venae ileocolicae,ramus colicus descendens venae ileocolicae,ramus colicus ascendens venae ileocolicae,ramus ascendens venae colicae dextrae

innervation:
  rami sigmoidei plexus mesenterici inferioris,nervi splanchnici sacrales 2,nervi splanchnici sacrales 1,ganglion mesentericum inferius,plexus mesentericus inferior,nervus vagus 1,nervus vagus 2,ganglion coeliacum 1,ganglion coeliacum 2,ganglion mesentericum superius,plexus coeliacus

syntopy:
  ren cap 2,nervus iliohypogastricus,nervus ilioinguinalis,nervus genitofemoralis,nervus cutaneus femoris lateralis,jejunum,ileum,musculus quadratus lumborum,musculus iliacus,musculus transversus abdominis


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1.1
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Transverse colon
parent: colon transversum*1
memorix_page: 26
object_id: colon transversum cap
en: Transverse colon anterior cap
cell_type: 0
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,,caecum,appendix vermiformis,ostium appendicis,colon ascendens,flexura coli dextra,colon transversum,flexura coli sinistra,colon descendens,colon sigmoideum,rectum,taenia mecocolica,taenia omentalis,taneia libera,epiploic appendices


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Descending and sigmoid colon
parent: Colon descendens and sigmoideum
memorix_page: 26
object_id: colon descendens
latin: colon descendens
en: Descending colon
cell_type: 0
master_object: Rectum
tags: subgroup_desc
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 473 characters]

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1493 characters]

innervation:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 282 characters]

syntopy:
  musculus iliacus,musculus quadratus lumborum,musculus transversus abdominis,ren 1, ren cap 1,nervus iliohypogastricus,nervus ilioinguinalis,nervus genitofemoralis,nervus cutaneus femoris lateralis,jejunum,ileum


system: digestive
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Rectum
parent: Intestinum crassum
memorix_page: 27
latin: Rectum
en: Rectum
cell_type: 1
en_description:
  The rectum is the terminal part of the digestive canal. <b>It begins at the distal end of the sigmoid colon at the level of thevertebral disc S2/S3 and terminates as the anal canal</b>. The rectum is about 12- 15 cm long, 4 cm wide and is located in the lesser pelvis. In comparison to the other parts of the large intestine, it lacks haustra, taeniae coli and omental appendices.Its shorter oral part has a <b>peritoneal attachment </b>called <b>the mesorectum</b>. Its longer aboral part is fixed to the surrounding sutures in the lesser pelvis by connective tissue known as <b>the paraproctium</b>.

general_description:
  <b>The root of the mesentery </b>divides the inframesocolic part of the peritoneal cavity into the left and right paracolic spaces. The superior mesenteric artery supplies the right paracolic space and the inferior mesenteric artery supplies the left paracolic space.

  <b>The haemorrhoidal plexus </b>(internalrectal venous plexus) is located inthe submucosa of the oral part ofthe anal canal. It elevates the submucosa and contributes to the closure mechanism of the rectum. The Superior rectal vein supplies blood to this area and it plays a key role in the pathogenesis of haemorrhoids.

  <b>The connection between the hepatic portal vein and internal iliac vein </b>is a portocaval anastomosis and can participate in pathogenesis of haemorrhoids.

  <b>The mechanism of defecati on </b>startswith expansion of the rectal ampullacaused by accumulati on of stool.This eventually leads to refl ex relaxation of the internal anal sphincter.The next step is voluntary relaxati onof the external anal sphincter andpuborectalis. This triggers contractions of the muscular layer of therectum that lead to defecati on.

  <b>The colorectal zone </b>reaches aborallydown to the supratransiti onalline.

  <b>The surgical anal canal </b>(described inthe text and depicted in the fi gure)extends from the anorectal junction to the anocutaneous line. Theanatomical anal canal extends fromthe pecti nate line to the anocutaneous line.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Structures palpated in the digital rectal examination:</b>
  <b>Dorsally: </b>coccyx, pelvic surface of the sacrum
  <b>Laterally: </b>ischiadic spines, sometimes also the ovaries in female
  <b>Ventrally in a male: </b>prostate (sometimes also the urinary bladder)
  <b>Ventrally in a female: </b>the perineal wedge , posterior wall of the vaginaand, through the vagina, the cervix of the uterus.

  <b>Colonoscopy </b>is an endoscopic examination of the large intestine.

  <b>Colorectal carcinoma </b>is one of the most common malignant tumors of the adult population. The common way for metastatic dissemination is hematogenous spread through the hepatic portal vein to the liver and lymphatic spread to the regional lymph nodes.


system: digestive
main_group: Large Intestine
sub_group: Rectum
parent: Rectum
memorix_page: 27
object_id: rectum
en: Rectum *1
cell_type: 0
master_object: Rectum
related_objects:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 473 characters]

blood_supply:
[cell repeats an earlier one in this file: 1493 characters]

innervation:
  superior hypogastric plexus,plexus iliaca communis 2,plexus iliaca communis 1,nervus hypogastricus 2,nervus hypogastricus 1,nervi splanchnici sacrales 1,nervi splanchnici sacrales 2,nervi rectales inferiores,rami musculares nervi pudendus,nervus pudendus,plexus hypogastricus inferior 2,plexus hypogastricus inferior 1,plexus rectalis medius 2,plexus rectalis medius 1

syntopy:
  os coccygis,os sacrum,musculus puborectalis,musculus pubococcygeus,musculus iliococcygeus.Urinary bladder,Seminal glands,Ductus deferens,Prostate


system: digestive
main_group: Liver
memorix_page: 28
latin: Hepar
en: Liver
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The liver </b>is the largest gland in the human body. It has both the exocrine and endocrine functions. The liver <b>produces bile</b>, which travels through the biliary tree and is stored in the gallbladder before being excreted by the bile duct into the duodenum. Other important functions of the liver are detoxification and haematopoesis during foetal development.The liver is <b>situated in the supramesocolic part of the peritoneal cavity </b>in the<b> right hypochondrium</b>. A minor part of the liver extends to the left hypochondrium.

general_description:
  <b>The basic structural unit of the liver: </b>hepatocytes
  <b>The basic morphologic unit:</b>the classical hepatic lobule
  <b>The basic circulation unit:</b>the portal lobule
  <b>The basic functional unit:</b>the hepatic acinus

  <b>The fibrous capsule of the liver</b>(capsule of Glisson) is a fibrous cover of the liver. It projects septainto the liver parenchyma. Thesesepta delimit individual hepatic lobules and house the blood vessels and bile ducts (perivascular fibrous capsule).

  <b>The sinusoid </b>is a type of a blood capillary which does not have a continuous basal lamina. Sinusoidshave irregularly shaped lumen and walls, which contain fenestrations and pores. Sinusoids are located between the anastomosing laminae of the hepatic parenchyma.Their structure facilitates exchange of substances between blood and hepatocytes. The portal blood and arterial blood are mixed in the sinusoids(and also in the circumlobularveins and precapillary veins).

  <b>The round ligament of the liver </b>is a ligamentous remnant of the umbilical vein.

  <b>The ligamentum venosum </b>is a ligamentous remnant of the venous duct.

  <b>The hepatorenal ligament </b>is a transition between the dorsal part of the right coronary ligament and the parietal peritoneum covering the right kidney.

  <b>The cystohepatic triangle of Calot Is</b> a topographical space bordered by the liver, common hepatic and cystic duct. It is a site for ligation of the cystic artery during cholecystectomy.

  <b>The liver is held </b>in its position by the inferior vena cava, its adhesion to the diaphragm (bare area), the support of the abdominal organs, the round ligament of the liver and other attachments.


  <b>The fibrous appendix of the liver</b>(<i>appendix fi brosa hepati s</i>) is the end of the left coronary ligament attached to the diaphragm.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Liver cirrhosis </b>is conversion of the hepatic parenchyma into nodules.Portal venous blood pressure may rise due to cirrhosis. This is called portal hypertension and can lead to an expansion of the portocaval anastomosis between the stomach and oesophagus, which results in oesophageal varices. Bleeding of ruptured varices is a life-threatening condition.

  <b>Division of the liver parenchyma into segments </b>allows surgical removal particular segments according to their blood supply.


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Liver
sub_group: Liver lobes
parent: lobi hepatis
en_description: - on the right side of the left sagittal fissure
memorix_page: 28
object_id: hepar lobus dexter
latin: lobus dexter
en: Right lobe
cell_type: 0
master_object: Liver
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,vesica biliaris dorsal,vesica biliaris ventral,cystic duct,pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap

blood_supply:
  vena hepatica dextra,vena hepatica sinistra,vena hepatica intermedia,arteria hepatica sinistra,arteria hepatica dextra,ramus dexter venae portae hepatis,ramus sinister venae portae hepatis,arteria hepatica communis,arteria hepatica propria,vena portae hepatis

innervation:
  truncus vagalis posterior,rami coeliaci trunci vagalis posterioris,rami phrenici nervi phrenicis 2,rami phrenicoabdominales nervi phrenicis 2,truncus vagalis anterior,ramus hepaticus trunci vagalis anterioris,rami hepatici

syntopy:
  glandula suprarenalis 2,ren 2, ren cap 2,Duodenum,Large intestine,Oesophagus,diaphragm,pericardium fibrosum,


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 7
main_group: Liver
sub_group: Fixation of liver
parent: Fixation of liver
memorix_page: 29
object_id: ligamentum hepatis falsiforme
latin: ligamentum falciforme hepatis
en: Falciform ligament
cell_type: 0
master_object: ligamentum hepatis
en_description:
  - a peritoneal duplicature
  - is located in front of the liver between the right and left lobes
  - attaches the liver to the anterior abdominal wall
  - splits into two separate sheets on the bare area, the anterior sheet continues as the coronary ligament on both sides

related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,vesica biliaris dorsal,vesica biliaris ventral,cystic duct,pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap,hepar lobus dexter,hepar lobus sinister,hepar lobus quadratus,hepar lobus caudatus


system: digestive
main_group: Gallbladder
memorix_page: 31
latin: Vesica biliaris (fellea)
en: Gallbladder
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The gallbladder </b>is about 10 cm long blind sac with a volume of about 15 ml. It is located <b>in the fossa for the gallbladder on the visceral (inferior) surface of the liver</b>. <b>Bile is collected and concentrated </b>in the gallbladder. Almost the whole gallbladder is covered by the visceral peritoneum except part of its anterior wall, which is attached to the liver by connective tissue (there can be sometimes a short peritoneal duplication). The bile duct leads bile to the duodenum and to the gallbladder. Two types of the bile ducts exist: intrahepati c (inside the liver) and extrahepati c (outside the liver) bile ducts.

general_description:
  <b>Cholekystis </b>is the Greek term for gallbladder.

  <b>The mucosa of the gallbladder </b>has columnar epithelium and displays macroscopic folding.

  <b>The spiral fold </b>is a mucosal fold in the cystic duct, which allows bile to flow in both directions.

  <b>Hartmanns pouch </b>is an out-pocketingof the gallbladder wall situated at the border between the neck of the gallbladder and first part of the cystic duct.

  <b>The sphincter of the ampulla </b>is closed during the resting phase of digestion. This causes bile to accumulate in the bile duct and, after it reaches the level of the cystic duct passively flow into the gallbladder.

  <b>The gallbladder projects on the anterior abdominal wall </b>at Murphyspoint, which is located at the intersection of the midclavicular line and coastal margin.

  <b>The major duodenal papilla project on the anterior abdominal wall at Desjardins pancreatic point</b>,which is located 6 cm from the umbilicus on a line connecting the umbilicus to the right axilla.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Murphys point </b>may be sensitive on palpation (Murphys sign). This indicates pathology of the gallbladder.

  <b>Cholelithiasis </b>is the presence of bile stones in the gallbladder (cholecystolithiasis)or in the bile ducts(choledocholithiasis). This can cause inflammation of the gallbladder(cholecystitis), bile ducts (choledocholithitis) or pain, caused by the stone moving through the bile ducts(biliary colic).


system: digestive
main_group: Gallbladder
sub_group: Gallbladder longitudinal sections
parent: Gallbladder longitudinal sections
object_id: vesica biliaris ventral
latin: vesica biliaris ventralis
en: Ventral part of gallbladder
cell_type: 0
blood_supply: arteria cystica,vena cystica,ramus posterior venae cysticae,ramus anterior venae cysticae
innervation: truncus vagalis anterior,ramus hepaticus trunci vagalis anterioris,rami hepatici,plexus hepaticus
syntopy: Liver,Stomach,Large Intestine
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,cystic duct,pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap,ductus pancreoticus,ductus pancreaticus accesorius,ductus pars supraduodenalis,ductus pars retroduenalis,ductus pars pancreatica,ductus pars intramuralis,hepar lobus dexter,hepar lobus sinister,hepar lobus quadratus,hepar lobus caudatus


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Gallbladder
sub_group: Structure
parent: Structure
en_description: - located beyond the level of the inferior margin of the liver
memorix_page: 31
en: Fundus
cell_type: 0
color: cd8217
object_id:
  vesica biliaris ventral,vesica biliaris dorsal,!hepar lobus dexter,!hepar lobus sinister,!hepar lobus quadratus,!hepar lobus caudatus,!ligamentum hepatis falsiforme,!ligamentum hepatis teres,!ligamentum hepatis ,!coronarium sinistrum,!ligamentum dextrum triangulare,!ligamentum hepatis coronarium dextrum,!ligamentum hepatis triangulare sinistrum,!omen minus,!ligamentum hepatis duodenale,!ligamentum hepatis venosum


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 4
main_group: Gallbladder
sub_group: Structure
parent: Structure
en_description: - continues to the cystic duct
memorix_page: 31
latin: collum
en: Neck
cell_type: 0
color: 6c13a6
hit_position: 0.98335,11.93324,0.23546
hit_normal: -9.59248,6.01171,16.40873
body_rotation: 15.92927,28.47081,8.46539
object_id:
  cystic duct,!hepar lobus dexter,!hepar lobus sinister,!hepar lobus quadratus,!hepar lobus caudatus,!ligamentum hepatis falsiforme,!ligamentum hepatis teres,!ligamentum hepatis ,!coronarium sinistrum,!ligamentum dextrum triangulare,!ligamentum hepatis coronarium dextrum,!ligamentum hepatis triangulare sinistrum,!omen minus,!ligamentum hepatis duodenale,!ligamentum hepatis venosum


system: digestive
main_group: Gallbladder
parent: Vesica biliaris (fellea)
en_description: - course from the porta hepatis to the duodenum within the hepatoduodenal ligament
memorix_page: 31
en: Extrahepatic bile ducts
cell_type: 1
sub_group:
  vena cava inferior,vena portae hepatis,ductus pars retroduenalis,ductus pars supraduodenalis,Large Intestine,vena mesenterica superior,arteria mesenterica superior,aorta abdominalis,vena renalis 1,glandula suprarenalis 1,Stomach,arteria splenica,vena splenica,Jejunum and ileum


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 5
main_group: Gallbladder
sub_group: Extrahepatic bile ducts
parent: Extrahepatic bile ducts
en_description: - located on the right side of the porta hepatis
memorix_page: 31
object_id: hepar ductus dexter
latin: ductus hepaticus dexter
en: Right hepatic duct
cell_type: 0
master_object: hepatic duct
syntopy: vesica biliaris ventral,vesica biliaris dorsal
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,cystic duct,pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap,ductus pancreoticus,ductus pancreaticus accesorius,ductus pars supraduodenalis,ductus pars retroduenalis,ductus pars pancreatica,ductus pars intramuralis,


system: digestive
main_group: Pancreas
memorix_page: 32
latin: Pancreas *1
en: Pancreas
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>The pancreas </b>is a <b>secondary retroperitoneal </b>glandular organ located behind the stomach and in front of the inferior vena cava and abdominal aorta. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. <b>The exocrine part </b>produces pancreatic juice that contains a variety of enzymes. Pancreatic juice flows into the duodenum. <b>The endocrine part </b>releases hormones into the blood. One of the important hormones it releases is <b>insulin</b>.

general_description:
  <b>The exocrine part of the pancreas is</b> composed of the pancreatic acini which are made up by the serous cells. It is the major part of the pancreas.

  <b>The endocrine part of the pancreas is</b> composed of about one million pancreatic islets of Langerhans. Itrepresents only 1.5 % of the total pancreatic mass.

  <b>The duodenal window </b>is a radiological term for the position of the head of the pancreas in the concavity of the duodenum at the level ofL2.

  <b>The pancreas originates </b>as two buds which merge during prenatal development. The ventral bud forms the inferior part of the head of the pancreas and its uncinate process and the dorsal bud form the superior part of the head, the body and the tail of the pancreas.

  <b>Divided pancreas </b>(<i>pancreas divisum</i>)is a developmental defect presenting with a missing connection between the pancreatic duct and the ducts draining the body and tail. In this condition, most of the pancreatic juice is drained via the accessory pancreatic duct.

  <b>Annular pancreas </b>(<i>pancreas annulare</i>)is a developmental defect characterized by a pancreas circumferentially surrounding the descending part of the duodenum. It can lead to constriction of the duodenal lumen.

clinical_notes:
  <b>Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography(ERCP) </b>is an endoscopic technique that allows visualisation of the biliary tree and pancreas. It allows contrast material can be injected into the bile duct and the pancreatic duct.

  <b>Tumors of the head of the pancreas can</b> compress the bile duct leading to icterus (jaundice), compress the portal vein leading to portal hypertension and compress the pylorus or duodenum leading to obstructi on of the passage of chyme.


system: digestive
main_group: Pancreas
sub_group: Pancreas longitudinal sections
parent: Pancreas longitudinal sections
object_id: pancreas anterior cap
en: Pancreas anterior part
cell_type: 0
innervation: plexus pancreaticus
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,,gaster,gaster cap,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,vesica biliaris dorsal,vesica biliaris ventral,cystic duct,ductus pancreoticus,ductus pancreaticus accesorius,ductus pars supraduodenalis,ductus pars retroduenalis,ductus pars pancreatica,ductus pars intramuralis,

blood_supply:
  arteria splenica,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior posterior,arteria hepatica communis,truncus coeliacus,arteria prepancreatica,arteria pancreatica inferior,arteria pancreatica dorsalis,arteria caudae pancreatis,arteria pancreatica magna,arteria mesenterica superior,ramus posterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,ramus anterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior anterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior anterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior posterior,vena pancreatica magna,vena splenica,venae pancreaticae,vena mesenterica superior

syntopy:
  vena cava inferior,vena portae hepatis,ductus pars retroduenalis,ductus pars supraduodenalis,Large Intestine,vena mesenterica superior,arteria mesenterica superior,aorta abdominalis,vena renalis 1,glandula suprarenalis 1,Stomach,arteria splenica,vena splenica,Jejunum and ileum


system: digestive
main_group: Pancreas
sub_group: Pancreas longitudinal sections
parent: Pancreas longitudinal sections
object_id: pancreas posterior cap
en: Pancreas posterior part
cell_type: 0
innervation: plexus pancreaticus
related_objects:
  vertebrae thoracales t1,vertebrae thoracales t10,vertebrae thoracales t11,vertebrae thoracales t12,vertebrae thoracales t2,vertebrae thoracales t3,vertebrae thoracales t4,vertebrae thoracales t5,vertebrae thoracales t6,vertebrae thoracales t7,vertebrae thoracales t8,vertebrae thoracales t9,vertebrae lumbales l1,vertebrae lumbales l2,vertebrae lumbales l3,vertebrae lumbales l4,vertebrae lumbales l5,pelvis,os sacrum,duodenum,jejunum, ileum,duodenum cap,vesica biliaris dorsal,vesica biliaris ventral,cystic duct,ductus pancreoticus,ductus pancreaticus accesorius,ductus pars supraduodenalis,ductus pars retroduenalis,ductus pars pancreatica,ductus pars intramuralis,

blood_supply:
  arteria splenica,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis superior posterior,arteria hepatica communis,truncus coeliacus,arteria prepancreatica,arteria pancreatica inferior,arteria pancreatica dorsalis,arteria caudae pancreatis,arteria pancreatica magna,arteria mesenterica superior,ramus posterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,ramus anterior arteria pancreaticoduodenalis inferior,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior anterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior anterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale inferior posterior,vena pancreaticoduodenale superior posterior,vena pancreatica magna,vena splenica,venae pancreaticae,vena mesenterica superior

syntopy:
  vena cava inferior,vena portae hepatis,ductus pars retroduenalis,ductus pars supraduodenalis,Large Intestine,vena mesenterica superior,arteria mesenterica superior,aorta abdominalis,vena renalis 1,glandula suprarenalis 1,Stomach,arteria splenica,vena splenica,Jejunum and ileum


system: digestive
custom_hierarchy: 1
main_group: Pancreas
sub_group: Structures
parent: Structures
memorix_page: 32
latin: caput pancreatis
en: Head of pancreas
cell_type: 0
color: 57bdf3
en_description:
  - the large and rounded part of the pancreas
  - is located in front of the body of vertebra L2 within the concavity of the duodenum

object_id:
  pancreas anterior cap,pancreas posterior cap,!gaster,!gaster fibrae obliquae,!gaster cap,!gaster stratum circulare,!gaster sphincter pylori,!gaster stratum longitudinale,!omen minus,!omen majus


system: digestive
main_group: Peritoneum
memorix_page: 33
en: Peritoneum
cell_type: 0
en_description:
  <b>Peritoneum </b>is a <b>serous membrane </b>lining the abdominal cavity and part of the pelvic cavity. <b>The peritoneal cavity </b>is a space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum. <b>The parietal peritoneum </b>covers the abdominal walls and <b>the visceralperitoneum </b>covers organs. <b>Peritoneal duplicatures </b>are folds of peritoneum connecting the visceral to the parietal peritoneum. They <b>hold organs in their correct positions </b>and allow <b>blood vessels and nerves to pass to the organs</b>.

general_description:
  <b>Peritoneum </b>consists the mesothelium supported by subserosal connective tissue, which attaches the peritoneum to the surrounding structures. It contains blood and lymphatic vessels.
  <b>Mesothelium </b>is a layer of simple squamous epithelium that produces peritoneal fluid. Mesothelial cells have the ability to absorb fluid.
  <b>The total area of the peritoneum </b>is approximately 2 m2.


